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好兇惡的動物

惡豹發惡了，差點喪命。這些動物惹不過！

豹的體型極像虎而小，是中大型貓科動物。肩高約0.9米，體長約一米，體重50千克。僅尾長就60厘米。豹的顏色鮮艷，有許多斑點和金黃色的毛皮，故名金錢豹。
目錄
[隱藏]

* 1 棲息環境
* 2 習性與捕食
* 3 繁殖
* 4 分佈
* 5 亞種
* 6 現狀
o 6.1 估計數量
o 6.2 瀕危因素
o 6.3 保護措施
* 7 參見
* 8 參見

[編輯] 棲息環境

豹的棲息環境境多種多樣，從海拔100米的低地到海拔3000米的高山都有。適應力頑強，生境包括森林﹑草原﹑濕地沼澤﹑沙漠﹑雪地等。

[編輯] 習性與捕食

豹可以說是完美的獵手，矯健身材，靈活，奔跑速度快。既會游泳，又會爬樹。性情機敏，嗅覺聽覺視覺都很好，智力超常，隱蔽性強，這些是老虎獅子都辦不到的，牠亦是少數可適應不同生境的貓科動物。豹的獵物主要有鹿﹑羚羊及野豬，但亦會捕獵靈貓，猴子，雀鳥，齧齒動物等，甚至腐肉，視乎獵物產地而定。豹也有捕食黑猩猩的的紀錄。在獵物缺乏時，牠也會捕獵家畜，因而發生人豹之間的衝突。和一般貓科動物一樣，豹會在密林的掩護下，潛近獵物，並來一個突襲，攻擊獵物的頸部或口鼻部，令其窒息。非洲品種通常把獵物拖上樹慢慢吃，以防獅子或鬣狗等食肉動物前來搶奪。在食物鏈上，豹處於次等捕獵者的位置，這亦意味著豹同時是老虎及獅子的獵物。

[編輯] 繁殖

3至4月份發情交配，6至7月份產子，每胎3至4子。性成熟約7歲。

[編輯] 分佈

亞洲非洲等地，從西非到蘇門答臘，華北至華南也有豹的蹤影。

[編輯] 亞種

* 桑給巴爾島亞種 - P. p. adersi (極危, 可能滅絕)
* 華南亞種 - P. p. fusca (低危)
* 印度支那亞種 - P. p. delacouri (易危)
* 華北亞種 - P. p. japonensis (易危)
* 西奈半島亞種 - P. p. jarvisi (極危, 可能滅絕)
* 斯里蘭卡亞種 - P. p. kotiya (瀕危)
* 爪哇亞種 - P. p. melas (瀕危)
* 阿拉伯半島亞種 - P. p. nimr (極危)
* 東北亞種 - P. p. orientalis (極危)
* 北非亞種 - P. p. panthera (極危, 可能滅絕)
* 指名亞種 - P. p. pardus (低危)
* 波斯亞種 - P. p. saxicolor (瀕危)
* 歐洲亞種 - P. p. sickenbergi (滅絕)
* 小亞細亞亞種 - P. p. tulliana (極危, 可能滅絕)

[編輯] 現狀

瀕危

[編輯] 估計數量

全世界2000萬隻。

[編輯] 瀕危因素

1. 因毛皮鮮艷而被大量捕殺
2. 因會襲擊家畜而被處以「害獸」的罪名被大量捕殺。

[編輯] 保護措施

豹已被列為中華人民共和國一級保護動物，嚴禁捕殺。

[編輯] 參見

* （英文） Cat Specialist Group (2002). Panthera pardus，2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species，IUCN 2006。擷取於2007年3月10日
* （英文） Panthera pardus (TSN 183804)，ITIS 分類資訊。擷取於2007年3月12日。

鬥牛活動要立刻停止

這不是運動的呀！更不是你的玩具！

牛是哺乳類偶蹄目牛科牛亞科牛屬各種馴化的牛類的總稱。也稱為家牛。一般將它們用來作為肉、奶或皮革的來源，或使用它們的力氣。

大多數今天的家牛的祖先是原牛。原牛曾在歐亞大陸上非常普及，但後來它們的數量漸漸減小，1627年世界上最後一頭原牛在波蘭被捕殺。

人類在公元前8世紀就已經開始馴養牛了。今天世界上有許多家牛種類，有些甚至是來自原牛的家牛與其他牛種（比如美洲野牛）的交配。尤其許多亞洲的家牛是來自其他牛種的。

牛有四個胃 (反芻動物有四個胃：瘤胃、網胃、重瓣胃和皺胃)，當牛食草在第一個胃消化完畢會再回到口部再咀嚼到第二個胃，如此類推。
目錄
[隱藏]

* 1 牛品種
* 2 利用
* 3 疾病
* 4 關於牛的文化
* 5 關於牛的用法
* 6 外部連結

[編輯] 牛品種

* 日本和牛
* 利木贊牛
* 西門塔爾
* 五彩金牛

[編輯] 利用
中華民國道路禁止標誌禁12禁止獸力車進入標誌，顯示的動物是牛，因為臺灣大多獸力車是牛車。
中華民國道路禁止標誌禁12禁止獸力車進入標誌，顯示的動物是牛，因為臺灣大多獸力車是牛車。

家牛有許多用處，有些種類是專門為了某一個目的培養出來的。除肉和奶外家牛還提供肥料(牛糞）。在過去這是最重要的肥料之一。到今天為止在地球上許多地方家牛還被用來拉車或耕地。

在提供食品的家牛中人們一般分肉牛和奶牛。

[編輯] 疾病

* 瘋牛病
* 口蹄疫
* 炭疽
* 肺結核
* 乳熱

[編輯] 關於牛的文化

牛是中國的12生肖之一，排名第二。
十二生肖
鼠 | 牛 | 虎 | 兔 | 龍 | 蛇 | 馬 | 羊 | 猴 | 雞 | 狗 | 豬

牛在西方文化中是財富與力量的象徵，源於古埃及。股票價格持續上升被稱為「牛市」。

另外，牛在中國文化中是勤力的象徵。

[編輯] 關於牛的用法

* 「牛」是中國的口頭用語之一，是為「厲害」之意。

例句1：「你太牛了吧！」—— 你十分厲害！
例句2：「你是牛人呀。」—— 你是一個厲害的人。

* 另外「牛一」的意思是生日。

例句：「今日我牛一啊！」—— 今日我生日啊！

世上最優美的足球守門員

Amazing Soccer Goal Save - Click Here for more great videos and pictures!

守門員是足球隊、手球隊或曲棍球隊的角色，主要工作是在比賽中用身體各部分(如手、腳)或輔助工具（如曲棍球的球棍）阻止對方球員攻入己方的球門。

足球比賽是守門員唯一能用手觸球的球員，但只限在禁區內，否則被視為犯規。守門員比賽服裝須與己方球員不同，以便分辨身分。毫無疑問，守門員是場上承受壓力最大、也是最關鍵的位置。所有隊員都可以出現錯誤，惟獨守門員的失誤可導致比賽失利。對守門員的信任感是建立在避免出現失誤和驚險撲救的基礎之上。優秀守門員應不被失誤所困擾，並從中吸取經驗教訓。一次失誤或一次驚險撲救，絕不是判斷守門員能力的唯一標準。但最基本要素是，必須身手敏捷、反應迅速，有判斷力及有良好的撲救技術。此外，彈跳力和高大的身材也是一個優勢。
目錄
[隱藏]

* 1 守門員的能力
* 2 教練員的角色
* 3 著名守門員
o 3.1 足球

[編輯] 守門員的能力

* 遺傳因素

遺傳因素非常重要，但是它必須與艱苦訓練、恰當的指導和豐富的比賽經歷相結合。很難界定遺傳因素的定義，但是觀察一名年輕守門員時，首先要注意他的接球動作和步伐移動。而對於其他位置的隊員，則重點觀察球感、控制能力和速度。接球技術是守門員的基本功，如果沒有正確判斷球速和接球的基本能力，要取得更大發展則十分困難。同樣，守門員具備正確的選位能力也極其重要。

* 競技能

優秀球員必須具有全身心地提高技能和在比賽中展現自我的能力。這種內驅力在守門員身上更易察覺——他是怎樣力保球門不失？守門員要想立於不敗之地，主要取決於他投入比賽的程度和充分展現自我的能力，以及最大限度地減少失誤。當然這還包括一定程度的自我評價。守門員能客觀地自我評價相當重要。

優秀守門員的另一個重要特徵是，他們能夠正確面對失誤造成的壓力。所有的守門員都會出現錯誤，但是優秀的守門員都有一種不被失誤催垮的自信的精神意志，也絕不許可一次失誤導致另一次失誤的出現。

* 洞察力

守門員常被視為最後一名防守隊員，因此他要負責整個後防線的安全。所以，洞察比賽的進程，對守門員非常重要，他應善於通過語言表達他的意圖。這種能力是區分守門員是自信、積極主動還是緊張、缺乏自信的重要標誌。

* 意志力

優秀的守門員須帶著威嚴和自信投入比賽，同時感染著場上的其他隊員。倘要少走彎路，積極、正確的比賽經驗是非常重要的。從理論上說，守門員不可能在理想的空間內比賽，如果要守門員全面開發潛能，對他的要求應要更具挑戰性。讓有培養前途的年輕隊員與比他們年齡更大的隊員一起比賽、訓練，是積累比賽經驗的好辦法。

[編輯] 教練員的角色

有洞察力的教練員能夠準確識辨守門員的比賽表現，並在訓練中設計情景訓練。進一步說，情景訓練可以幫助守門員正確認識比賽和正確解決比賽中遇到的問題。守門員訓練應遵循這一原則，並根據守門員的情況不斷調整。這樣才可以不斷提高守門員的自信心和競技能力。

由於足球運動在不斷變化、不斷發展，因此，對運動員的要求也應隨之變化。對教練員而言，緊隨時代步伐，迎接現代足球的挑戰是至關重要的。在過去的十年裡，守門員的能力發展是最快的。但總而言之，運用正確的基本技術、培養果斷準確的判斷能力，是通往成功的關鍵所在。

[編輯] 著名守門員

[編輯] 足球

* 耶辛 (Yve Yassin，蘇聯)
* 保方 (Gianluigi Buffon，義大利)
* 佐夫 (Dino Zoff，義大利)
* 卡恩 (Oliver Kahn，德國)
* 卡斯拿斯 (Íker Casillas Fernández，西班牙)
* 施治 (Petr Čech，捷克)

世上最優美的足球守門員

兇猛的斧頭鯊！

Sharks (superorder Selachimorpha) are fish with a full cartilaginous skeleton [1] and a streamlined body. They respire with the use of five to seven gill slits. Sharks have a covering of dermal denticles to protect their skin from damage and parasites and to improve fluid dynamics; they also have replaceable teeth.[1] Shark teeth are prized by collectors for their beauty, and because they are the only surviving relics of ancient sharks that are now extinct. Sharks include species ranging from the hand-sized pygmy shark, Euprotomicrus bispinatus, a deep sea species of only 22 centimetres (9 in) in length, to the whale shark, Rhincodon typus, the largest fish, which grows to a length of approximately 12 metres (39 ft) and which, like baleen whales, feeds only on plankton, squid, and small fish through filter feeding. The bull shark, Carcharhinus leucas, is the best known of several species to swim in both salt and fresh water and in deltas.[2]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Physical Characteristics
o 1.1 Skeleton
o 1.2 Respiration
o 1.3 Buoyancy
o 1.4 Osmoregulation
o 1.5 Teeth
o 1.6 Tails
o 1.7 Dermal denticles
o 1.8 Body temperature
* 2 Etymology
* 3 Evolution
* 4 Classification
* 5 Reproduction
o 5.1 Asexual Reproduction
* 6 Shark senses
o 6.1 Sense of smell
o 6.2 Sense of sight
o 6.3 Sense of hearing
o 6.4 Electroreception
o 6.5 Lateral line
* 7 Behaviour
* 8 Shark intelligence
* 9 Shark sleep
* 10 Habitat
* 11 Shark attacks
* 12 Sharks in captivity
* 13 Conservation
* 14 Shark fishery
* 15 Sharks in mythology
* 16 Sharks in Cultural Tradition
* 17 Trivia
* 18 In popular culture
o 18.1 Films
o 18.2 Books
* 19 See also
* 20 References
* 21 External links

[edit] Physical Characteristics

Main article: Physical characteristics of sharks

[edit] Skeleton

The skeleton of a shark is very different from that of bony fish and terrestrial vertebrates. Sharks and other cartilaginous fish (skates and rays) have skeletons made from rubbery cartilage, a tissue lighter and more flexible than bone.

Like its relatives the rays and skates, the shark's jaw is not attached to the cranium. The jaw's surface, which like the vertebrae and gill arches is a skeletal element that needs extra support due to its heavier exposure to physical stress and need for extra strength, has a layer of unique and tiny hexagonal plates called "tesserae", crystal blocks of calcium salts arranged as a mosaic.[3] This gives these areas much of the same strength found in real and much heavier bony tissue.
The general rule is that there is only one layer of tesserae in sharks, but the jaws of large specimens, such as the bull shark, tiger shark, and the great white shark, have been found to be covered with both two and three layers, and even more, depending on the body size. The jaws of a large white shark even had five layers.

In the rostrum (snout), the cartilage can be spongy and flexible to absorb the power of impacts.

The fin skeleton are elongated and supported with soft and unsegmented rays named ceratotrichia, filaments of elastic protein resembling the horny keratin in hair and feathers.

The inner parts of the males' pelvic fins have been modified to a pair of cigar- or sausage-shaped sex organs known as "claspers", used for internal fertilization.

[edit] Respiration
The major features of sharks

Like other fish, sharks extract oxygen from seawater as it passes over their gills. Shark gill slits are not covered like other fish, but are in a row behind its head. A modified slit called a spiracle is located just behind the eye; the spiracle assists the water intake during respiration and even plays a major role in bottom dwelling sharks, but is also reduced or missing in active pelagic sharks.[4] While moving, water passes through the mouth of the shark and over the gills -- this process is known as "ram ventilation". While at rest, most sharks pump water over their gills to ensure a constant supply of oxygenated water. A small subset of shark species that spend their life constantly swimming, a behavior common in pelagic sharks, have lost the ability to pump water through their gills. These species are obligate ram ventilators and would presumably asphyxiate if unable to stay in motion. (Obligate ram ventilation is also true of some pelagic bony fish species.)[5]

The respiration and circulation process begins when deoxygenated blood travels to the shark's two-chambered heart. Here the blood is pumped to the shark's gills via the ventral aorta artery where it branches off into afferent brachial arteries. Reoxygenation takes place in the gills and the reoxygenated blood flows into the efferent brachial arteries, which come together to form the dorsal aorta. The blood flows from the dorsal aorta throughout the body. The deoxygenated blood from the body then flows through the posterior cardinal veins and enters the posterior cardinal sinuses. From there blood enters the ventricle of the heart and the cycle repeats.

[edit] Buoyancy

Unlike bony fish, sharks do not have gas-filled swim bladders, but instead rely on a large liver filled with oil that contains squalene. The liver may constitute up to 30% of their body mass[6] for buoyancy. Its effectiveness is limited, so sharks employ dynamic lift to maintain depth and sink when they stop swimming. Some sharks, if inverted, enter a natural state of tonic immobility - researchers use this condition for handling sharks safely.[7] Sandtiger sharks are also known to gulp air from the surface and store it in their stomachs, using the stomach as a swim bladder.

[edit] Osmoregulation

Main article: Osmoregulation

In contrast to bony fish, the blood and other tissue of sharks and Chondrichthyes in general is isotonic to their marine environments because of the high concentration of urea and trimethylamine oxide, allowing them to be in osmotic balance with the seawater. This adaptation prevents most sharks from surviving in fresh water, and they are therefore confined to a marine environment. A few exceptions to this rule exist, such as the bull shark, which has developed a way to change its kidney function to excrete large amounts of urea.[6]

[edit] Teeth

Main article: Shark teeth

Tiger shark teeth
Tiger shark teeth

The teeth of carnivorous sharks are not attached to the jaw, but embedded in the flesh, and in many species are constantly replaced throughout the shark's life; some sharks can lose 30,000 teeth in a lifetime. All sharks have multiple rows of teeth along the edges of their upper and lower jaws. New teeth grow continuously in a groove just inside the mouth and move forward from inside the mouth on a "conveyor belt" formed by the skin in which they are anchored. In some sharks rows of teeth are replaced every 8–10 days, while in other species they could last several months. The lower teeth are primarily used for holding prey, while the upper ones are used for cutting into it.[4] The teeth range from thin, needle-like teeth for gripping fish to large, flat teeth adapted for crushing shellfish.

[edit] Tails
The range of shark tail shapes

The tails (caudal fins) of sharks vary considerably between species and are adapted to the lifestyle of the shark. The tail provides thrust and so speed and acceleration are dependent on tail shape. Different tail shapes have evolved in sharks adapted for different environments. Sharks possess a heterocercal caudal fin in which the dorsal portion is usually noticeably larger than the ventral portion. This is due to the fact that the shark's vertebral column extends into that dorsal portion, allowing for a greater surface area for muscle attachment which would then be used for more efficient locomotion among the negatively buoyant cartilaginous fishes. This is in contrast to the bony fishes, class osteichthyes, which possess a homocercal caudal fin.

The tiger shark's tail has a large upper lobe which delivers the maximum amount of power for slow cruising or sudden bursts of speed. The tiger shark has a varied diet, and because of this it must be able to twist and turn in the water easily when hunting, whereas the porbeagle, which hunts schooling fish such as mackerel and herring has a large lower lobe to provide greater speed to help it keep pace with its fast-swimming prey. It is also believed that sharks use the upper lobe of their tails to counter the lift generated by their pectoral fins. [8]

Some tail adaptations have purposes other than providing thrust. The cookiecutter shark has a tail with broad lower and upper lobes of similar shape which are luminescent and may help to lure prey towards the shark. The thresher feeds on fish and squid, which it is believed to herd, then stun with its powerful and elongated upper lobe.

[edit] Dermal denticles

Main article: Dermal denticle

Unlike bony fish, sharks have a complex dermal corset made of flexible collagenous fibres and arranged as a helical network surrounding their body. This works as an outer skeleton, providing attachment for their swimming muscles and thus saving energy. A similar arrangement of collagen fibres has been discovered in dolphins and squids.[citation needed] Their dermal teeth give them hydrodynamic advantages as they reduce turbulence when swimming.[9]

[edit] Body temperature

A few of the larger species, such as the shortfin mako, Isurus oxyrinchus, and the great white, are mildly homeothermic[8] - able to maintain their body temperature above the surrounding water temperature. This is possible because of the presence of the rete mirabile, a counter current exchange mechanism that reduces the loss of body heat. Muscular contraction also generates a mild amount of body heat. However, this differs significantly from true homeothermy, as found in mammals and birds, in which heat is generated, maintained, and regulated by metabolic activity.

[edit] Etymology

Until the 16th century,[10] sharks were known to mariners as "sea dogs".[11] According to the OED the name "shark" first came into use after Sir John Hawkins' sailors exhibited one in London in 1569 and used the word to refer to the large sharks of the Caribbean Sea, and later as a general term for all sharks. The name may have been derived from the Mayan word for fish, xoc, pronounced "shock" or "shawk".

[edit] Evolution
A collection of fossilised shark teeth
A collection of fossilised shark teeth

The fossil record of sharks extends back over 450 million years - before land vertebrates existed and before many plants had colonised the continents.[12] The first sharks looked very different from modern sharks.[13] The majority of the modern sharks can be traced back to around 100 million years ago.[14]

Mostly only the fossilized teeth of sharks are found, although often in large numbers. In some cases pieces of the internal skeleton or even complete fossilized sharks have been discovered. Estimates suggest that over a span of a few years a shark may grow tens of thousands of teeth, which explains the abundance of fossils. As the teeth consist of calcium phosphate, an apatite, they are easily fossilized.

Instead of bones, sharks have cartilagenous skeletons, with a bone-like layer broken up into thousands of isolated apatite prisms. When a shark dies, the decomposing skeleton breaks up and the apatite prisms scatter. Complete shark skeletons are only preserved when rapid burial in bottom sediments occurs.

Among the most ancient and primitive sharks is Cladoselache, from about 370 million years ago,[13] which has been found within the Paleozoic strata of Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. At this point in the Earth's history these rocks made up the soft sediment of the bottom of a large, shallow ocean, which stretched across much of North America. Cladoselache was only about 1 m long with stiff triangular fins and slender jaws.[13] Its teeth had several pointed cusps, which would have been worn down by use. From the number of teeth found in any one place it is most likely that Cladoselache did not replace its teeth as regularly as modern sharks. Its caudal fins had a similar shape to the pelagic makos and great white sharks. The discovery of whole fish found tail first in their stomachs suggest that they were fast swimmers with great agility.

From about 300 to 150 million years ago, most fossil sharks can be assigned to one of two groups. One of these, the acanthuses, was almost exclusive to freshwater environments.[15],[16] By the time this group became extinct (about 220 million years ago) they had achieved worldwide distribution. The other group, the hybodonts, appeared about 320 million years ago and was mostly found in the oceans, but also in freshwater.

Modern sharks began to appear about 100 million years ago.[14] Fossil mackerel shark teeth occurred in the Lower Cretaceous. One of the most recent families of sharks that evolved is the hammerhead sharks (family Sphyrnidae), which emerged in Eocene.[17] The oldest white shark teeth date from 60 to 65 million years ago, around the time of the extinction of the dinosaurs. In early white shark evolution there are at least two lineages: one with coarsely serrated teeth that probably gave rise to the modern great white shark, and another with finely serrated teeth and a tendency to attain gigantic proportions. This group includes the extinct megalodon, Carcharodon megalodon, which like most extinct sharks is only known from its teeth. A reproduction of its jaws was based on some of the largest teeth which up to almost 17 centimetres (7 in) long and suggested a fish that could grow to a length of 25 metres (80 ft) to 30 metres (100 ft). The reconstruction was found to be inaccurate, and estimates revised downwards to around 13 metres (43 ft) to 15.9 metres (52 ft).

It is believed that the immense size of predatory sharks such as the great white may have arisen from the extinction of the dinosaurs and the diversification of mammals. It is known that at the same time these sharks were evolving some early mammalian groups evolved into aquatic forms. Certainly, wherever the teeth of large sharks have been found, there has also been an abundance of marine mammal bones, including seals, porpoises and whales. These bones frequently show signs of shark attack. There are theories that suggest that large sharks evolved to better take advantage of larger prey.

[edit] Classification
Identification of the 8 extant shark orders

Sharks belong to the superorder Selachimorpha in the subclass Elasmobranchii in the class Chondrichthyes. The Elasmobranchii also include rays and skates; the Chondrichthyes also include Chimaeras. It is currently thought that the sharks form a polyphyletic group: in particular, some sharks are more closely related to rays than they are to some other sharks.

There are more than 360 described species of sharks split across are eight orders of sharks, listed below in roughly their evolutionary relationship from more primitive to more modern species:

* Hexanchiformes: Examples from this group include the cow sharks, frilled shark and even a shark that looks on first inspection to be a marine snake.
* Squaliformes: This group includes the bramble sharks, dogfish and roughsharks, and prickly shark.
* Pristiophoriformes: These are the sawsharks, with an elongated, toothed snout that they use for slashing the fish that they eat.
* Squatiniformes: Also known as angel sharks, they are flattened sharks with a strong resemblance to stingrays and skates.
* Heterodontiformes: They are generally referred to as the bullhead or horn sharks.
* Orectolobiformes: They are commonly referred to as the carpet sharks, including zebra sharks, nurse sharks, wobbegongs and the whale shark.
* Carcharhiniformes: These are commonly referred to as the groundsharks, and some of the species include the blue, tiger, bull, reef and oceanic whitetip sharks (collectively called the requiem sharks) along with the houndsharks, catsharks and hammerhead sharks. They are distinguished by an elongated snout and a nictitating membrane which protects the eyes during an attack.
* Lamniformes: They are commonly known as the mackerel sharks. They include the goblin shark, basking shark, megamouth shark, the thresher sharks, shortfin and longfin mako sharks, and great white shark. They are distinguished by their large jaws and ovoviviparous reproduction. The Lamniformes include the extinct megalodon, Carcharodon megalodon.

[edit] Reproduction
Claspers of male spotted wobbegong, Orectolobus maculatus
Claspers of male spotted wobbegong, Orectolobus maculatus

The sex of a shark can be easily determined. The males have modified pelvic fins which have become a pair of claspers. The name is somewhat misleading as they are not used to hold on to the female, but fulfil the role of the mammalian penis.

Mating has rarely been observed in sharks. The smaller catsharks often mate with the male curling around the female. In less flexible species the two sharks swim parallel to each other while the male inserts a clasper into the female's oviduct. Females in many of the larger species have bite marks that appear to be a result of a male grasping them to maintain position during mating. The bite marks may also come from courtship behaviour: the male may bite the female to show his interest. In some species, females have evolved thicker skin to withstand these bites.

Sharks have a different reproductive strategy from most fish. Instead of producing huge numbers of eggs and fry (a strategy which can result in a survival rate of less than .01%), sharks normally produce around a dozen pups (blue sharks have been recorded as producing 135 and some species produce as few as two).[18] These pups are either protected by egg cases or born live. No shark species are known to provide post-natal parental protection for their young, but females have a hormone that is released into their blood during the pupping season that apparently keeps them from feeding on their young[citation needed].
Egg case of Port Jackson shark - found on Vincentia beach, Jervis Bay Territory, Australia
Egg case of Port Jackson shark - found on Vincentia beach, Jervis Bay Territory, Australia

There are three ways in which shark pups are born:

* Oviparity - Some sharks lay eggs. In most of these species, the developing embryo is protected by an egg case with the consistency of leather. Sometimes these cases are corkscrewed into crevices for protection. The mermaid's purse, found washed-up on beaches, is an empty egg case. Oviparous sharks include the horn shark, catshark, Port Jackson shark, and swellshark.[19]
* Viviparity - These sharks maintain a placental link to the developing young, more analogous to mammalian gestation than that of other fishes. The young are born alive and fully functional. Hammerheads, the requiem sharks (such as the bull and tiger sharks), the basking shark and the smooth dogfish fall into this category. Dogfish have the longest known gestation period of any shark, at 18 to 24 months. Basking sharks and frilled sharks are likely to have even longer gestation periods, but accurate data is lacking.[18]
* Ovoviviparity - Most sharks utilize this method. The young are nourished by the yolk of their egg and by fluids secreted by glands in the walls of the oviduct. The eggs hatch within the oviduct, and the young continue to be nourished by the remnants of the yolk and the oviduct's fluids. As in viviparity, the young are born alive and fully functional. Some species practice oophagy, where the first embryos to hatch eat the remaining eggs in the oviduct. This practice is believed to be present in all lamniforme sharks, while the developing pups of the grey nurse shark take this a stage further and consume other developing embryos (intrauterine cannibalism). The survival strategy for the species that are ovoviviparous is that the young are able to grow to a comparatively larger size before being born. The whale shark is now considered to be in this category after long having been classified as oviparous. Whale shark eggs found are now thought to have been aborted. Most ovoviviparous sharks give birth in sheltered areas, including bays, river mouths and shallow reefs. They choose such areas because of the protection from predators (mainly other sharks) and the abundance of food.

[edit] Asexual Reproduction

In December 2001, a pup was born from a female hammerhead shark who had not been in contact with a male shark for over three years. This has led scientists to believe that sharks can produce without the mating process.

After three years of research, this assumption was confirmed on May 23, 2007, after determining the shark born had no paternal DNA, ruling out any sperm-storage theory as previous thought. It is unknown as to the extent of this behaviour in the wild, and how many species of shark are capable of parthenogenesis. This observation in sharks made mammals the only remaining major vertabrate group in which the phenomenon of asexual reproduction has not been observed.

Scientists warned that this type of behaviour in the wild is rare, and probably a last ditch effort of a species to reproduce when a mate isn't present. This leads to a lack of genetic diversity, required to build defenses againsts natural threats, and if a species of shark were to rely solely on asexual reproduction, it would probably be a road to extinction and maybe attribute to the decline of blue sharks off the Irish coast.[20] [21] [22]

[edit] Shark senses

[edit] Sense of smell

Sharks have keen olfactory senses, located in the short duct (which is not fused, unlike bony fish) between the anterior and posterior nasal openings, with some species able to detect as little as one part per million of blood in seawater. They are attracted to the chemicals found in the guts of many species, and as a result often linger near or in sewage outfalls. Some species, such as nurse sharks, have external barbels that greatly increase their ability to sense prey.

Sharks generally rely on their superior sense of smell to find prey, but at closer range they also use the lateral lines running along their sides to sense movement in the water, and also employ special sensory pores on their heads (Ampullae of Lorenzini) to detect electrical fields created by prey and the ambient electric fields of the ocean.

[edit] Sense of sight

Shark eyes are similar to the eyes of other vertebrates, including similar lenses, corneas and retinas, though their eyesight is well adapted to the marine environment with the help of a tissue called tapetum lucidum. This tissue is behind the retina and reflects light back to the retina, thereby increasing visibility in the dark waters. The effectiveness of the tissue varies, with some sharks having stronger nocturnal adaptations. Sharks have eyelids, but they do not blink because the surrounding water cleans their eyes. To protect their eyes some have nictitating membranes. This membrane covers the eyes during predation, and when the shark is being attacked. However, some species, including the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), do not have this membrane, but instead roll their eyes backwards to protect them when striking prey. The importance of sight in shark hunting behaviour is debated. Some believe that electro and chemoreception are more significant, while others point to the nictating membrane as evidence that sight is important. (Presumably, the shark would not protect its eyes were they unimportant.) The degree to which sight is used probably varies with species and water conditions.

[edit] Sense of hearing

Sharks also have a sharp sense of hearing and can hear prey many miles away. A small opening on each side of their heads (not to be confused with the spiracle) leads directly into the inner ear through a thin channel. The lateral line shows a similar arrangement, as it is open to the environment via a series of openings called lateral line pores. This is a reminder of the common origin of these two vibration- and sound-detecting organs that are grouped together as the acoustico-lateralis system. In bony fish and tetrapods the external opening into the inner ear has been lost.

[edit] Electroreception

Main article: Electroreception

Electroreceptors (Ampullae of Lorenzini) and lateral line canals in the head of a shark.
Electroreceptors (Ampullae of Lorenzini) and lateral line canals in the head of a shark.

The Ampullae of Lorenzini are the electroreceptor organs of the shark, and they vary in number from a couple of hundred to thousands in an individual. The shark has the greatest electricity sensitivity known in all animals. This sense is used to find prey hidden in sand by detecting the electric fields inadvertently produced by all fish. It is this sense that sometimes confuses a shark into attacking a boat: when the metal interacts with salt water, the electrochemical potentials generated by the rusting metal are similar to the weak fields of prey, or in some cases, much stronger than the prey's electrical fields: strong enough to attract sharks from miles away. The oceanic currents moving in the magnetic field of the Earth also generate electric fields that can be used by the sharks for orientation and navigation.

[edit] Lateral line

Main article: Lateral line

This system is found in most fish, including sharks. It is used to detect motion or vibrations in the water. The shark uses this to detect the movements of other organisms, especially wounded fish. The shark can sense frequencies in the range of 25 to 50 Hz.[23]

[edit] Behaviour

Studies on the behaviour of sharks have only recently been carried out leading to little information on the subject, although this is changing. The classic view of the shark is that of a solitary hunter, ranging the oceans in search of food; however, this is only true for a few species, with most living far more sedentary, benthic lives. Even solitary sharks meet for breeding or on rich hunting grounds, which may lead them to cover thousands of miles in a year.[24] Migration patterns in sharks may be even more complex than in birds, with many sharks covering entire ocean basins.

Some sharks can be highly social, remaining in large schools, sometimes up to over 100 individuals for scalloped hammerheads congregating around seamounts and islands e.g. in the Gulf of California.[6] Cross-species social hierarchies exist with oceanic whitetip sharks dominating silky sharks of comparable size when feeding.

When approached too closely some sharks will perform a threat display to warn off the prospective predators. This usually consists of exaggerated swimming movements, and can vary in intensity according to the level of threat.[25]

[edit] Shark intelligence

Despite the common myth that sharks are instinct-driven "eating machines", recent studies have indicated that many species possess powerful problem-solving skills, social complexity and curiosity. The brain-mass-to-body-mass ratios of sharks are similar to those of mammals and other higher vertebrate species.[26]

In 1987, near Smitswinkle Bay, South Africa, a group of up to seven great white sharks worked together to relocate the partially beached body of a dead whale to deeper waters to feed.[27]

Sharks have even been known to engage in playful activities (a trait also observed in cetaceans and primates). Porbeagle sharks have been seen repeatedly rolling in kelp and have even been observed chasing an individual trailing a piece behind them.[28]

[edit] Shark sleep

Some say a shark never sleeps. It is unclear how sharks sleep. Some sharks can lie on the bottom while actively pumping water over their gills, but their eyes remain open and actively follow divers. When a shark is resting, they do not use their nares, but rather their spiracles. If a shark tried to use their nares while resting on the ocean floor, they would be sucking up sand rather than water. Many scientists believe this is one of the reasons sharks have spiracles. The spiny dogfish's spinal cord, rather than its brain, coordinates swimming, so it is possible for a spiny dogfish to continue to swim while sleeping. It is also possible that a shark can sleep with only parts of its brain in a manner similar to dolphins.[29]

[edit] Habitat

A December 10, 2006 report by the Census of Marine Life group reveals that 70% of the world's oceans are shark-free. They have discovered that although many sharks live up to depths as low as 1,500 metres (5,000 ft), they fail to colonize deeper, putting them more easily within reach of fisheries and thus endangered status.[30]

[edit] Shark attacks
Snorkeler with blacktip reef shark. In rare circumstances involving poor visibility, blacktips may bite a human, mistaking it for prey. Under normal conditions they are harmless and shy.
Snorkeler with blacktip reef shark. In rare circumstances involving poor visibility, blacktips may bite a human, mistaking it for prey. Under normal conditions they are harmless and shy.

Main article: Shark attack

Sharks rarely attack humans unless provoked. In 2006 the International Shark Attack File (ISAF) undertook an investigation into 96 alleged shark attacks, confirming 62 of them as unprovoked attacks and 16 as provoked attacks. The average number of fatalities per year between 2001 and 2006 from unprovoked shark attacks is 4.3.[31]

Contrary to popular belief, only a few sharks are dangerous to humans. Out of more than 360 species, only three have been involved in a significant number of fatal, unprovoked attacks on humans: the great white, tiger and bull sharks.[32] These sharks, being large, powerful predators, may sometimes attack and kill people, but all of these sharks have been filmed in open water, without the use of a protective cage.[33]

The perception of sharks as dangerous animals has been popularised by publicity given to a few isolated unprovoked attacks, such as the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916, and through popular fictional works about shark attacks, such as the Jaws film series. The author of Jaws, Peter Benchley, had in his later years attempted to dispel the image of sharks as man-eating monsters.

[edit] Sharks in captivity
Two whale sharks in the Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium
Two whale sharks in the Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium

Until recently only a few benthic species of shark, such as hornsharks, leopard sharks and catsharks could survive in aquarium conditions for up to a year or more. This gave rise to the belief that sharks, as well as being difficult to capture and transport, were difficult to care for. A better knowledge of sharks has led to more species (including the large pelagic sharks) being able to be kept for far longer. At the same time, transportation techniques have improved and now provide a way for the long distance movement of sharks.[34]

Despite being considered critical for the health of the shark, very few studies on feeding have been carried out. Since food is the reward for appropriate behaviour, trainers must rely on control of feeding motivation.

[edit] Conservation
The number of sharks being caught has increased rapidly over the last 50 years.
The number of sharks being caught has increased rapidly over the last 50 years.

The majority of shark fisheries around the globe have little monitoring or management. With the rise in demand of shark products there is a greater pressure on fisheries.[35] Stocks decline and collapse because sharks are long-lived apex predators with comparatively small populations, which makes it difficult for them breed rapidly enough to maintain population levels. Major declines in shark stocks have been recorded in recent years - some species have been depleted by over 90% over the past 20-30 years with a population decline of 70% not being unusual.[36] Many governments and the UN have acknowledged the need for shark fisheries management, but due to the low economic value of shark fisheries, the small volumes of products produced and the poor public image of sharks, little progress has been made.

Many other threats to sharks include habitat alteration, damage and loss from coastal developments, pollution and the impact of fisheries on the seabed and prey species.

A Canadian-made documentary, Sharkwater is raising awareness of the depletion of the world's shark population.

[edit] Shark fishery
A 14-foot, 544 kg (1200 pound) Tiger shark caught in Kaneohe Bay, Oahu in 1966
A 14-foot, 544 kg (1200 pound) Tiger shark caught in Kaneohe Bay, Oahu in 1966

Every year, an estimate states that 26 to 73 million (median value is at 38 million) sharks are killed by people in commercial and recreational fishing.[37] In the past, sharks were killed simply for the sport of landing a good fighting fish (such as the shortfin mako sharks). Shark skin is covered with dermal denticles, which are similar to tiny teeth, and was used for purposes similar to sandpaper. Other sharks are hunted for food (Atlantic thresher, shortfin mako and others), and some species for other products.[38]

Sharks are a common seafood in many places around the world, including Japan and Australia. In the Australian State of Victoria shark is the most commonly used fish in fish and chips, in which fillets are battered and deep-fried or crumbed and grilled and served alongside chips. When served in fish and chip shops, it is called flake.

Sharks are often killed for shark fin soup: the finning process involves capture of a live shark, the removal of the fin with a hot metal blade, and the release of the live animal back into the water. Sharks are also killed for their meat. The meat of dogfishes, smoothhounds, catsharks, skates and rays are in high demand by European consumers.[citation needed] The situation in Canada and the United States is similar: the blue shark is sought as a sport fish while the porbeagle, mako and spiny dogfish are part of the commercial fishery.[citation needed] There have been cases where hundreds of de-finned sharks were swept up on local beaches without any way to convey themselves back into the sea.[citation needed] Conservationists have campaigned for changes in the law to make finning illegal in the U.S.

Shark cartilage has been advocated as effective against cancer and for treatment of osteoarthritis. (This is because many people believe that sharks cannot get cancer and that taking it will prevent people from getting these diseases, which is untrue.) However, a trial by Mayo Clinic found no effect in advanced cancer patients.

Sharks generally reach sexual maturity slowly and produce very few offspring in comparison to other fish that are harvested. This has caused concern among biologists regarding the increase in effort applied to catching sharks over time, and many species are considered to be threatened.

Some organizations, such as the Shark Trust, campaign to limit shark fishing.

[edit] Sharks in mythology

Sharks figure prominently in the Hawaiian mythology. There are stories of shark men who have shark jaws on their back. They could change form between shark and human at any time they desired. A common theme in the stories was that the shark men would warn beach-goers that sharks were in the waters. The beach-goers would laugh and ignore the warnings and go swimming, subsequently being eaten by the same shark man who warned them not to enter the water.

Hawaiian mythology also contained many shark gods. They believed that sharks were guardians of the sea, and called them Aumakua:[39]

* Kamohoali'i - The best known and revered of the shark gods, he was the older and favoured brother of Pele,[40] and helped and journeyed with her to Hawaii. He was able to take on all human and fish forms. A summit cliff on the crater of Kilauea is considered to be one of his most sacred spots. At one point he had a he'iau (temple or shrine) dedicated to him on every piece of land that jutted into the ocean on the island of Moloka'i.
* Ka'ahupahau - This goddess was born human, with her defining characteristic being her red hair. She was later transformed into shark form and was believed to protect the people who lived on O'ahu from sharks. She was also believed to live near Pearl Harbor.
* Kaholia Kane - This was the shark god of the ali'i Kalaniopu'u and he was believed to live in a cave at Puhi, Kaua'i.
* Kane'ae - The shark goddess who transformed into a human in order to experience the joy of dancing.
* Kane'apua - Most commonly, he was the brother of Pele and Kamohoali'i. He was a trickster god who performed many heroic feats, including the calming of two legendary colliding hills that destroyed canoes trying to pass between.
* Kawelomahamahai'a - Another human, he was transformed into a shark.
* Keali'ikau 'o Ka'u - He was the cousin of Pele and son of Kua. He was called the protector of the Ka'u people. He had an affair with a human girl, who gave birth to a helpful green shark.
* Kua - This was the main shark god of the people of Ka'u, and believed to be their ancestor.
* Kuhaimoana - He was the brother of Pele and lived in the Ka'ula islet. He was said to be 30 fathoms (55 m) long and was the husband of Ka'ahupahau.
* Kauhuhu - He was a fierce king shark that lived in a cave in Kipahulu on the island of Maui. He sometimes moved to another cave on the windward side of island of Moloka'i.
* Kane-i-kokala - A kind shark god that saved shipwrecked people by taking them to shore. The people who worshipped him feared to eat, touch or cross the smoke of the kokala, his sacred fish.

In other Pacific Ocean cultures, Dakuwanga was a shark god who was the eater of lost souls.

[edit] Sharks in Cultural Tradition

In ancient Greece, it was forbidden to eat shark flesh at women's festivals.

A popular myth is that sharks are immune to disease and cancer; however, this is untrue. There are both diseases and parasites that affect sharks. The evidence that sharks are at least resistant to cancer and disease is mostly anecdotal and there have been few, if any, scientific or statistical studies that have shown sharks to have heightened immunity to disease.[41]

[edit] Trivia
Trivia sections are discouraged under Wikipedia guidelines.
The article could be improved by integrating relevant items into the main text and removing inappropriate items. (July 2007)

In 1957, after a series of shark attacks, the South African government ordered a warship to drop underwater bombs on the sharks, but it didn't work and the attacks continued.[42]

In ancient Hawaii, prisoners were forced to fight hungry sharks--armed only with a sharks tooth.[42]

The Great White shark and the Tiger shark can stick their heads out of water.[43]

[edit] In popular culture

[edit] Films

* Jaws series (1975, 1978, 1983, 1987)
* Live and Let Die (1973)
* The Spy Who Loved Me (1977)
* Tintorera (1977)
* Great White (1980)
* Cruel Jaws (1995)
* Deep Blue Sea (1999)
* Shark Attack series (1999, 2001, 2002)
* Open Water series (2003, 2007)
* Red Water (2003)
* Finding Nemo (2003)
* Shark Tale (2004)
* The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou (2004)
* The Twelve Days of Terror (2004)
* Megalodon (2004)
* Into the Blue (2005)
* Spring Break Shark Attack (2005)
* Shark Bait (2006)
* Sharkwater (2007)

[edit] Books

* Megalodon Robin Brown (1983)
* Jaws Peter Benchley (1974)
* Deep Wizardry Diane Duane (1985)
* Carcharodon George Edward Noe (1987)
* Meg: A Novel of Deep Terror Steve Alten (1997)
* The Trench Steve Alten (1999)
* Meg: Primal Waters Steve Alten (2004)

[edit] See also

* List of sharks

[edit] References

1. ^ a b Budker, Paul (1971). The Life of Sharks. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. SBN 297003070.
2. ^ Allen, Thomas B. (1999). The Shark Almanac. New York: The Lyons Press. ISBN 1-55821-582-4.
3. ^ Hamlett, W. C. (1999). Sharks, Skates and Rays: The Biology of Elasmobranch Fishes. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6048-2.
4. ^ a b Gilbertson, Lance (1999). Zoology Laboratory Manual. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.. ISBN 0-07-237716-X.
5. ^ William J. Bennetta (1996). Deep Breathing. Retrieved on 2007-08-28.
6. ^ a b c Compagno, Leonard; Dando, Marc & Fowler, Sarah (2005). Sharks of the World. Collins Field Guides. ISBN 0-00-713610-2.
7. ^ Pratt, H. L. Jr; Gruber, S. H.; & Taniuchi, T. (1990). Elasmobranchs as living resources: Advances in the biology, ecology, systematics, and the status of the fisheries. NOAA Tech Rept..
8. ^ a b Nelson, Joseph S. (1994). Fishes of the World. New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-54713-1.
9. ^ R. Aidan Martin. Skin of the Teeth. Retrieved on 2007-08-28.
10. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved on 2006-08-08.
11. ^ Marx, Robert F. (1990). The History of Underwater Exploration. Courier Dover Publications, 3. ISBN 0-486-26487-4.
12. ^ Martin, R. Aidan.. Geologic Time. ReefQuest. Retrieved on 2006-09-09.
13. ^ a b c Martin, R. Aidan.. Ancient Sharks. ReefQuest. Retrieved on 2006-09-09.
14. ^ a b Martin, R. Aidan.. The Origin of Modern Sharks. ReefQuest. Retrieved on 2006-09-09.
15. ^ http://hoopermuseum.earthsci.carleton.ca/sharks/P2-3.htm "Xenacanth". Retrieved on 11/26/06.
16. ^ http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/earliest.htm "Biology of Sharks and Rays: 'The Earliest Sharks'". Retrieved on 11/26/06.
17. ^ R. Aidan Martin. The Rise of Modern Sharks. Retrieved on 2007-08-28.
18. ^ a b Leonard J. V. Compagno (1984). Sharks of the World: An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 92-5-104543-7.
19. ^ Marine Biology notes. School of Life Sciences, Napier University. Retrieved on 2006-09-12.
20. ^ Female sharks reproduce without male DNA, scientists say. The New York Times, New York City. Retrieved on 2007-05-23.
21. ^ No need for dad: Female shark reproduces without sex. Yahoo News. Retrieved on 2007-05-23.
22. ^ Demian D. Chapman1, Mahmood S. Shivji, Ed Louis, Julie Sommer, Hugh Fletcher and Paulo A. Prodöhl. Virgin birth in a hammerhead shark. Biology Letters. Retrieved on 2007-05-25.
23. ^ Popper, A.N.; C. Platt (1993). "Inner ear and lateral line". The Physiology of Fishes (1st ed.).
24. ^ Scientists track shark's 12,000-mile round-trip. Guardian Unlimited. Retrieved on 2006-09-17.
25. ^ Jaws: The natural history of sharks. Natural History Museum. Retrieved on 2006-09-17.
26. ^ Smart sharks. BBC - Science and nature. Retrieved on 2006-08-07.
27. ^ Is the White Shark Intelligent. ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Retrieved on 2006-08-07.
28. ^ Biology of the Porbeagle. ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Retrieved on 2006-08-07.
29. ^ How Do Sharks Swim When Asleep?. ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Retrieved on 2006-08-07.
30. ^ Extreme Life, Marine Style, Highlights 2006 Ocean Census. coml.org (2006-12-10). Retrieved on 2006-12-10.
31. ^ Worldwide shark attack summary. International Shark Attack File. Retrieved on 2007-08-28.
32. ^ Statistics on Attacking Species of Shark. ISAF. Retrieved on 2006-09-12.
33. ^ Great white shark spotted off Hale'iwa. Hawaiian newspaper article. Retrieved on 2006-09-12. with pictures of cageless diver with great white shark.
34. ^ Whale Sharks in Captivity. Retrieved on 2006-09-13.
35. ^ Pratt, H. L. Jr.; Gruber, S. H. & Taniuchi, T. (1990). Elasmobranchs as living resources: Advances in the biology, ecology, systematics, and the status of the fisheries. NOAA Tech Rept. (90).
36. ^ Walker, T.I. (1998). Shark Fisheries Management and Biology.
37. ^ Triple Threat: World Fin Trade May Harvest up to 73 Million Sharks per Year. Retrieved on 2007-10-07.
38. ^ FAO Shark Fisheries. Retrieved on 2006-09-10.
39. ^ Hawaiian Mythology. Retrieved on 2006-09-13.
40. ^ Pele, Goddess of Fire. Retrieved on 2006-09-13.
41. ^ Do Sharks Hold Secret to Human Cancer Fight?. National Geographic. Retrieved on 2006-09-08.
42. ^ a b Arnold, Nick (2005-07-15). Angry Animals (Horrible Science). Scholastic Hippo. ISBN 0439963648.
43. ^ Shark Trivia. National Geographic.

馬納當拿 VS 美斯

他的足球足技好厲害呀！

迪亞哥·阿曼多·馬拉度納（Diego Armando Maradona，1960年10月30日－）是一位前阿根廷足球運動員，被認為足球史上最優秀亦是最具爭議的球員之一。馬拉度納可以踢前場任何位置，用左腳踢球，其盤帶技術和射門技術皆是頂級水準。

在他1976年到1994年的職業球員生涯中，馬拉度納先後加入小阿根廷人、阿根廷小保加、西班牙巴塞隆納、義大利拿坡里、西班牙塞維利亞、阿根廷紐維爾斯老男孩、阿根廷小保加。曾獲得過阿根廷聯賽冠軍、義大利甲級聯賽冠軍、歐洲聯盟杯冠軍。在阿根廷國家隊效力的（1977年-1994年）17年裡，他還獲得過世界盃冠軍和世界青年足球錦標賽冠軍。2001年，他被國際足協評為「20世紀最佳球員」。
目錄
[隱藏]

* 1 生平
o 1.1 足球生涯
+ 1.1.1 青年時期
+ 1.1.2 事業頂峰
+ 1.1.3 高峰消落
* 2 退役後

[編輯] 生平

[編輯] 足球生涯

[編輯] 青年時期

馬拉度納在1960年10月30日出生在阿根廷首都布宜諾斯艾利斯的維拉-費奧里托區的一個貧困家庭。11歲時在小阿根廷人屬下的少年隊已經小有名氣，並曾上過電視。馬拉度納14歲已升入青年人俱樂部一隊，列入甲組聯賽比賽名單。在阿根廷青年人隊的5年裡，馬拉度納參賽166場入116球。1981年馬拉度納轉會小保加，又在40場比賽中入28球，並取得他人生第一個聯賽錦標。

馬拉度納早於1976年便在對匈牙利賽事中首次代表阿根廷國家足球隊。18歲時他替阿根廷以3-1贏蘇聯奪得世青盃冠軍，並獲得賽事的最佳球員獎。1982年馬拉度納首次出戰世界盃決賽周。於首圏以0-1敗於比利時，即使及後擊敗匈牙利和薩爾瓦多出線，但在次圈以1-2敗於該屆的冠軍義大利和以1-3敗於巴西腳下。在對巴西的賽事，馬拉度納因踢對方的球員被趕離場。

[編輯] 事業頂峰

同年夏天馬拉度納正式遠赴歐洲，加盟西甲豪門巴塞隆納。期間馬拉度納於1983年帶領巴塞擊敗皇家馬德里奪得西班牙國王盃。雖然在效力巴塞期間馬拉度納上陣58場入38球，但他在巴塞羅那卻過得並不順利。1982年底患上肝炎休養了3個月；1983年9月24日，他在與畢爾包的比賽中被對方剷斷了腿，差點弄至提早掛靴，幸好14週內便傷癒復出。

因為巴塞並不滿意馬拉度納，故於1984年把他賣給了意甲的拿坡里。自此馬拉度納開始了他球員生涯的高峰，不但在1986-87年和1989-90年球季贏得意甲聯賽冠軍，他還贏得義大利盃（1987年）、歐洲足協盃（1989年）和義大利超級盃（1990年）。同時拿坡里亦兩次奪得意甲聯賽亞軍（1987-88、1988-89）。

馬拉度納在拿坡里表現出了一個偉大的前場靈魂的一切天才。他獲得兩次意甲金靴，並留下數量眾多的精彩進球和無數的精彩盤帶。

這段期間馬拉度納在國際賽的成績亦相當驕人，1986年馬拉度納帶領阿根廷出戰1986年世界盃，一路帶領阿根廷打進決賽贏得獎盃。整個大賽馬拉度納都表現出他的重要性，故賽後亦被廣泛認為他是該屆最出色的球員。他在半準決賽對英格蘭所攻入的兩球，更奠定了他傳奇的一生。從慢鏡重播中可見他所進的得一球是用手打進龍門的，後來他辯稱這是「上帝之手」，並且把進球說成是上帝的手，馬拉度納的頭」（A little of the hand of God, and a little of the head of Maradona），引申上帝是進球與否的最終主宰，因為球證誤判他的進球有效。然而在2005年8月22日，馬拉度納他在一個電視節目中說他是故意用手把球打進，而且隨即知道進球將會被判無效。據他回憶，當他進球後立即想到:「我在等候我的隊友來擁抱我，但沒有人來……我對他們說：『來抱我，不然裁判就會判進球無效。』」而第二個進球則被評選為世界盃歷史上的最佳進球。也因為這兩個進球，馬拉度納被稱為「一半天使，一半魔鬼」。
馬勒當拿(2006年)
馬拉度納(2006年)

相反，馬拉度納的第二個進球則把他的足球技術發揮得淋漓盡致。他持球走了半個球場，盤扭過六個英格蘭球員，分別為格連荷杜（Glenn Hoddle）、彼得·列特（Peter Reid）、森臣（Kenny Sansom）、畢查（Terry Butcher）、芬維克（Terry Fenwick）和守門員施路頓。這個進球在2002年國際足協舉行的網上選舉更被選為世紀最佳進球。阿根廷最終以2-1把英格蘭淘汰出局。這兩個進球被英國的第四電視頻道在2002年的「100大運動時刻」（100 Greatest Sporting Moments）中選為第六位。

其後他在準決賽對比利時的賽事中有入了兩球奇蹟般的進球。在決賽西德隊用兩人的盯人戰術以凍結馬拉度納，但他依然找到機會以一個不可思議的傳球直接助攻豪·布魯查加射入致勝的一球。

[編輯] 高峰消落

隨著年紀漸大，馬拉度納的表現亦慢慢走下坡，1990年世界盃擔任了阿根廷的隊長，帶領球隊進入決賽，但以0比1敗給前西德。1992年馬拉度納離開開創他人生高峰的拿坡里，轉投西班牙小球會塞維利亞，一年後再回到阿根廷球會效力。在1994年世界盃，雖然馬拉度納參加了兩場賽事並入了一球，但後來他對禁藥麻黃素的藥物檢測呈陽性反應，被判罰停賽15個月，結果阿根廷最終被在十六強被淘汰出局。1997年馬拉度納最終宣佈掛靴，結束其璀璨的球員生涯。

[編輯] 退役後
馬勒當拿與阿根廷總統内斯托尔·基什内尔
馬拉度納與阿根廷總統內斯托爾·基什內爾

馬拉度納被認為是二十世紀最偉大的足球運動員，他不僅擁有南美球員精準的腳法和極其嫻熟的帶球技術，大局觀也非常出色，在任何一支球隊，他都是絕對靈魂，可以將球隊整體盤活。可惜馬拉度納在個人行為和私生活方面皆受到非議。如有傳他早在效力巴塞時曾染上毒癮，而這亦被指為遭巴塞開除的原因。1994 年世界盃時亦被驗出服食禁藥遭停賽，事後他亦不斷上電視為自己辯護。

退役後馬拉度納主要都是從事足球推廣活動工作為主，雖並無參與任何教練工作，但普遍被國內後輩視為學習的對象。2004年4月18日，他因吸食過量毒品古柯鹼而需要入院，當時一度病危，後情況好轉，於同月29日出院，並在古巴總統菲德爾·卡斯楚的邀請下前往哈瓦那進行戒毒。事後世界各媒體都對他需要戒毒而感到震驚和惋惜，但無損他在足壇上的影響力。2006年世界盃在德國舉行，馬拉度納一直都前來為阿根廷國家隊後輩打氣。不久馬拉度納更公開聲稱要執掌阿根廷國家隊，但最後都沒有成事。
維基共享資源中相關的多媒體資源：
Diego Maradona
前任：
馬利奧·肯佩斯南美足球先生
1979, 1980 繼任：
薛高
前任：
米高·柏天尼世界足球先生
1986 繼任：
古烈治
前任：
索夫
(義大利) 世界盃足球賽
冠軍隊隊長
1986 繼任：
馬圖斯
(西德)

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