台灣一名小神童 打字打電腦a~z只需0.3秒
台灣一名小神童 打字打電腦a~z只需0.3秒
電子計算機（electronic computer），俗稱電腦，簡稱計算機（computer），是一種根據一系列指令來對數據進行處理的機器。所相關的技術研究叫電腦科學，由數據為核心的研究稱信息技術。
電腦種類繁多。實際來看，電腦總體上是處理信息的工具。根據圖靈機理論，一部具有最基本功能的電腦應當能夠完成任何其它電腦能做的事情。因此，只要不考慮時間和存儲因素，從個人數碼助理（PDA）到超級電腦都應該可以完成同樣的作業。即是說，即使是設計完全相同的電腦，只要經過相應改裝，就應該可以被用於從公司薪金管理到無人駕駛飛船操控在內的各種任務。由於科技的飛速進步，下一代電腦總是在性能上能夠顯著地超過其前一代，這一現象有時被稱作「摩爾定律」。
電腦在組成上形式不一。早期電腦的體積足有一間房屋大小，而今天某些嵌入式電腦可能比一副撲克牌還小。當然，即使在今天，依然有大量體積龐大的巨型電腦為特別的科學計算或面向大型組織的事務處理需求服務。比較小的，為個人應用而設計的電腦稱為微型電腦，簡稱微機。我們今天在日常使用「電腦」一詞時通常也是指此。不過，現在電腦最為普遍的應用形式卻是嵌入式的。嵌入式電腦通常相對簡單，體積小，並被用來控制其它設備—無論是飛機，工業機器人還是數位相機。
上述對於電子計算機的定義包括了許多能計算或是只有有限功能的特定用途的設備。然而當說到現代的電子計算機，其最重要的特徵是，只要給予正確的指示，任何一臺電子計算機都可以模擬其他任何電腦的行為（只受限於電子計算機本身的存儲容量和執行的速度）。據此，現代電子計算機相對於早期的電子計算機也被稱為通用型電子計算機。
審問外星人
審問外星人 "片段只長 2分 55秒 , 應該是在一間很黑的房間內拍攝 , 影片一開始便看見一個啡色皮膚的大眼外星人坐在中間 , 他前面應該是一張檯和一些儀器 , 檯前的左右各有一個人 (埋沒在黑暗中 , 只能當他們移動時才看到身影 ). 影片是沒有聲音的 (下文會解釋 ). 到末段看到外星人開始抽搐 , 似乎是身體出現毛病 , 這時有兩個醫生模樣的人出現替他料理 , 及抹去他的嘔吐物 . 據 Victor所說 , 該片段是於 1996年拍攝的 , 片中的外星人不會說話 , 而是靠類似心靈感應的方法進行溝通 , 片中的兩人 , 一人是軍方人員 , 另一人就是負責和外星人進行思想交流的 .他們當時正在盤問那外星人一些和飛碟有關的技術問題 . 那外星人因為有病 , 以後無須再接受盤問了 .
外星人是對地球以外智慧生命的統稱。古今中外一直有關於「外星人」的假想，在各國史書中也有不少疑似「外星人」的奇異記載，但現今人類還無法確定是否有外星生命，甚至是「外星人」的存在。
1977年9月5日發射的旅行者1號太空探測器，是人類第一次以科學的方法嘗試聯繫「外星智慧生命」。
[編輯] 有關外星人的科幻電影
* E.T.
* 異形
* 第三類接觸 (電影)
* 黑超特警組(MIB)
* 火星人玩轉地球
* ID4星際終結者
* Taken [1]
牛都識得吹雞
牛是哺乳類偶蹄目牛科牛亞科牛屬各種馴化的牛類的總稱。也稱為家牛。一般將它們用來作為肉、奶或皮革的來源，或使用它們的力氣。
大多數今天的家牛的祖先是原牛。原牛曾在歐亞大陸上非常普及，但後來它們的數量漸漸減小，1627年世界上最後一頭原牛在波蘭被捕殺。
人類在公元前8世紀就已經開始馴養牛了。今天世界上有許多家牛種類，有些甚至是來自原牛的家牛與其他牛種（比如美洲野牛）的交配。尤其許多亞洲的家牛是來自其他牛種的。
牛有四個胃 (反芻動物有四個胃：瘤胃、網胃、重瓣胃和皺胃)，當牛食草在第一個胃消化完畢會再回到口部再咀嚼到第二個胃，如此類推。
目錄
[隱藏]
* 1 牛品種
* 2 利用
* 3 疾病
* 4 關於牛的文化
* 5 關於牛的用法
* 6 外部連結
[編輯] 牛品種
* 日本和牛
* 利木贊牛
* 西門塔爾
* 五彩金牛
[編輯] 利用
中華民國道路禁止標誌禁12禁止獸力車進入標誌，顯示的動物是牛，因為臺灣大多獸力車是牛車。
中華民國道路禁止標誌禁12禁止獸力車進入標誌，顯示的動物是牛，因為臺灣大多獸力車是牛車。
家牛有許多用處，有些種類是專門為了某一個目的培養出來的。除肉和奶外家牛還提供肥料(牛糞）。在過去這是最重要的肥料之一。到今天為止在地球上許多地方家牛還被用來拉車或耕地。
在提供食品的家牛中人們一般分肉牛和奶牛。
[編輯] 疾病
* 瘋牛病
* 口蹄疫
* 炭疽
* 肺結核
* 乳熱
[編輯] 關於牛的文化
牛是中國的12生肖之一，排名第二。
十二生肖
鼠 | 牛 | 虎 | 兔 | 龍 | 蛇 | 馬 | 羊 | 猴 | 雞 | 狗 | 豬
牛在西方文化中是財富與力量的象徵，源於古埃及。股票價格持續上升被稱為「牛市」。
另外，牛在中國文化中是勤力的象徵。
[編輯] 關於牛的用法
* 「牛」是中國的口頭用語之一，是為「厲害」之意。
例句1：「你太牛了吧！」—— 你十分厲害！
例句2：「你是牛人呀。」—— 你是一個厲害的人。
* 另外「牛一」的意思是生日。
例句：「今日我牛一啊！」—— 今日我生日啊！
煙花造的AK47
Seventy-Three Roman Candle Cannon - Watch more free videos
煙花是有兩次的爆炸的，煙火是只有一次爆炸的[來源請求]，在日本稱之為花火。煙花在中國發明也較早，主要用於軍事上、盛大的典禮或表演中。
《後武林舊事》記有宋孝宗觀海潮放煙火的情景說：「淳熙十年（公元1183年）八月十八日，上詣德壽宮，共請兩殿往浙江觀潮……管軍命於江面分佈五陣，乘騎弄旗，標槍舞刀，如履平地。點放五色煙炮滿江、及煙收、炮息，則諸船盡藏，不見一隻。」宋理宗（公元1225年至1264年）時，周密在《齊東野語》中也記載了當時皇宮觀看煙花的故事。到元、明年間，許多詩人、文學家都有有關鞭爆煙花這方面的記述。自清代以來鞭爆煙花使用普遍了。
目錄
[隱藏]
* 1 原理
* 2 金屬焰色反應
* 3 以「煙花」或「花火」為名的電影
* 4 外部連結
[編輯] 原理
這個條目或段落的語調被認為不適合百科全書。
請協助改寫條目，或前往討論頁討論修改辦法。請您閱讀維基百科的更優秀條目寫作指南。
2007年香港特別行政區成立十周年紀念
2007年香港特別行政區成立十周年紀念
一支手持冷焰火
一支手持冷焰火
煙花的化學原理，其實和爆竹的大同小異，其結構都包含黑火藥和藥引。燃放煙花後，類似以上提到的化學反應引發爆炸，而爆炸過程中所釋放出來的能量，絕大部分轉化成光能呈現在我們眼中。
煙花的最大特色是能夠放出五彩繽紛的顏色。到底煙花內有甚麼神秘的成份呢？關鍵是在製作煙花的過程中加入一些發光劑和發色劑。
發光劑是金屬鎂或金屬鋁的粉末。當這些金屬燃燒時，會發出白熾的強光。發色劑其實只不過是一些金屬化合物。金屬化合物含有金屬離子。當這些金屬離子被燃燒時，會發放出獨特的火焰顏色。不同種類的金屬化合物在燃燒時，會發放出不同顏色的光芒。
舉例說，氯化鈉和硫酸鈉都屬於鈉的化合物，他們在燃燒時便會發出金黃色火焰。 同樣道理，硝酸鈣和碳酸鈣在燃燒時會發出磚紅色火焰 。
其實在化學科，我們常常會運用以上結果來測試物質中所含的金屬。這類型的實驗稱為焰色試驗 (flame test)。煙花便是利用金屬的這種特性製成的。製作煙花的人經過巧妙的排列，決定燃燒的先後次序。這樣，煙花引爆後，便能在漆黑的天空中綻放出鮮豔奪目、五彩繽紛的圖案了。
一個獵人用鷹獵鹿片段
Catching A Deer With A Bird - Watch more free videos
被人們稱為鹿的動物在不同地區可能是不同的種類，這類動物在人們的觀念中容易於其他偶蹄目動物（如豬、牛）等區分。在生物分類學鹿類動物上包括反芻亞目鹿上科的麝科和鹿科，有時也包括與鹿上科親緣較近的鼷鹿上科的鼷鹿科動物。
公猩猩被母猩猩集體圍攻
猩猩（學名Pongo），也叫人猿、紅猩猩、紅毛猩猩，靈長目的一屬，與猴子最大不同的地方就是沒有尾巴，能用手或腳拿東西。與人類十分相近，與人類基因相似度達96.4％。活動的習性通常不用聲音溝通，通常有好幾個個體會在同一個區域活動，但彼此不幹擾。平均壽命大概40年。
目錄
[隱藏]
* 1 分佈
* 2 食物
* 3 數量
* 4 外部連結
[編輯] 分佈
有兩種，分別分佈於馬來西亞和印尼的婆羅洲以及印尼的蘇門達臘。
[編輯] 食物
猩猩的食物為果實、花、樹葉和樹皮。部分猩猩也吃昆蟲和鳥類。
[編輯] 數量
猩猩的生育策略都是採取子代數目少，懷孕期約233～263天，但撫養期間很長的策略，大概要六到七歲左右才能漸漸獨立生活。通常是雌性負責照顧後代，雄性大多獨立行動。因為生育期如此漫長，整體的生育率顯得很低，再加上棲息地被破壞，獵人的捕捉，許多猩猩面臨瀕臨絕種的危險。猩猩的數量在過去一百年明顯減少了91％，現今生存在婆羅洲的猩猩已剩大約五萬五千隻。
神奇Laser
Awesome Laser Illusionist - Watch more free videos
A laser is a device that emits light through a specific mechanism for which the term laser is an acronym: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. This is a combined quantum-mechanical and thermodynamical process discussed in more detail below. As a light source, a laser can have various properties, depending on the purpose for which it is designed and calibrated. A typical laser emits light in a narrow, low-divergence beam and with a well-defined wavelength (corresponding to a particular color if the laser is operating in the visible spectrum). This is in contrast to a light source such as the incandescent light bulb, which emits into a large solid angle and over a wide spectrum of wavelength. These properties can be summarized in the term coherence.
A laser consists of a gain medium inside an optical cavity, with a means to supply energy to the gain medium. The gain medium is a material (gas, liquid, solid or free electrons) with appropriate optical properties. In its simplest form, a cavity consists of two mirrors arranged such that light bounces back and forth, each time passing through the gain medium. Typically, one of the two mirrors, the output coupler, is partially transparent. The output laser beam is emitted through this mirror.
Light of a specific wavelength that passes through the gain medium is amplified (increases in power); the surrounding mirrors ensure that most of the light makes many passes through the gain medium. Part of the light that is between the mirrors (i.e., is in the cavity) passes through the partially transparent mirror and appears as a beam of light. The process of supplying the energy required for the amplification is called pumping and the energy is typically supplied as an electrical current or as light at a different wavelength. In the latter case, the light source can be a flash lamp or another laser. Most practical lasers contain additional elements that affect properties such as the wavelength of the emitted light and the shape of the beam.
The first working laser was demonstrated in May 1960 by Theodore Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories. Recently, lasers have become a multi-billion dollar industry. The most widespread use of lasers is in optical storage devices such as compact disc and DVD players, in which the laser (a few millimeters in size) scans the surface of the disc. Other common applications of lasers are bar code readers and laser pointers. In industry, lasers are used for cutting steel and other metals and for inscribing patterns (such as the letters on computer keyboards). Lasers are also commonly used in various fields in science, especially spectroscopy, typically because of their well-defined wavelength or short pulse duration in the case of pulsed lasers. Lasers are also used for military and medical applications.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Physics
* 2 History
o 2.1 Foundations
o 2.2 Maser
o 2.3 Laser
o 2.4 Recent innovations
* 3 Types and operating principles
o 3.1 Gas lasers
o 3.2 Chemical lasers
+ 3.2.1 Excimer lasers
o 3.3 Solid-state lasers
+ 3.3.1 Fiber-hosted lasers
+ 3.3.2 Semiconductor lasers
o 3.4 Dye lasers
o 3.5 Free electron lasers
* 4 Continuous wave and pulsed lasers
o 4.1 Continuous wave operation
o 4.2 Pulsed operation
+ 4.2.1 Q-switching
+ 4.2.2 Modelocking
+ 4.2.3 Pulsed pumping
* 5 Uses
o 5.1 Example uses by typical output power
* 6 Laser safety
* 7 Related terminology
* 8 Popular misconceptions
* 9 Fictional predictions
* 10 Hobby uses
* 11 See also
* 12 Further reading
o 12.1 Books
o 12.2 Periodicals
* 13 References
* 14 External links
[edit] Physics
Principal components:1. Active laser medium2. Laser pumping energy3. High reflector4. Output coupler5. Laser beam
Principal components:
1. Active laser medium
2. Laser pumping energy
3. High reflector
4. Output coupler
5. Laser beam
A helium-neon laser demonstration at the Kastler-Brossel Laboratory at Univ. Paris 6. The glowing ray in the middle is an electric discharge producing light in much the same way as a neon light. It is the gain medium through which the laser passes, not the laser beam itself, which is visible there. The laser beam crosses the air and marks a red point on the screen to the right.
A helium-neon laser demonstration at the Kastler-Brossel Laboratory at Univ. Paris 6. The glowing ray in the middle is an electric discharge producing light in much the same way as a neon light. It is the gain medium through which the laser passes, not the laser beam itself, which is visible there. The laser beam crosses the air and marks a red point on the screen to the right.
Spectrum of a helium neon laser showing the very high spectral purity intrinsic to nearly all lasers. Compare with the relatively broad spectral emittance of a light emitting diode.
Spectrum of a helium neon laser showing the very high spectral purity intrinsic to nearly all lasers. Compare with the relatively broad spectral emittance of a light emitting diode.
See also: Laser science and Laser construction
A laser is composed of an active laser medium, or gain medium, and a resonant optical cavity. The gain medium transfers external energy into the laser beam. It is a material of controlled purity, size, concentration, and shape, which amplifies the beam by the quantum mechanical process of stimulated emission, predicted by Albert Einstein, while he studied the photoelectric effect. The gain medium is energized, or pumped, by an external energy source. Examples of pump sources include electricity and light, for example from a flash lamp or from another laser. The pump energy is absorbed by the laser medium, placing some of its particles into high-energy ("excited") quantum states. Particles can interact with light both by absorbing photons or by emitting photons. Emission can be spontaneous or stimulated. In the latter case, the photon is emitted in the same direction as the light that is passing by. When the number of particles in one excited state exceeds the number of particles in some lower-energy state, population inversion is achieved and the amount of spontaneous emission due to light that passes through is larger than the amount of absorption. Hence, the light is amplified. Strictly speaking, these are the essential ingredients of a laser. However, usually the term laser is used for devices where the light that is amplified is produced as spontaneous emission from the same gain medium as where the amplification takes place. Devices where light from an external source is amplified are normally called optical amplifiers.
The light generated by stimulated emission is very similar to the input signal in terms of wavelength, phase, and polarization. This gives laser light its characteristic coherence, and allows it to maintain the uniform polarization and often monochromaticity established by the optical cavity design.
The optical cavity, a type of cavity resonator, contains a coherent beam of light between reflective surfaces so that the light passes through the gain medium more than once before it is emitted from the output aperture or lost to diffraction or absorption. As light circulates through the cavity, passing through the gain medium, if the gain (amplification) in the medium is stronger than the resonator losses, the power of the circulating light can rise exponentially. But each stimulated emission event returns a particle from its excited state to the ground state, reducing the capacity of the gain medium for further amplification. When this effect becomes strong, the gain is said to be saturated. The balance of pump power against gain saturation and cavity losses produces an equilibrium value of the laser power inside the cavity; this equilibrium determines the operating point of the laser. If the chosen pump power is too small, the gain is not sufficient to overcome the resonator losses, and the laser will emit only very small light powers. The minimum pump power needed to begin laser action is called the lasing threshold. The gain medium will amplify any photons passing through it, regardless of direction; but only the photons aligned with the cavity manage to pass more than once through the medium and so have significant amplification.
The beam in the cavity and the output beam of the laser, if they occur in free space rather than waveguides (as in an optical fiber laser), are, at best, low order Gaussian beams. However this is rarely the case with powerful lasers. If the beam is not a low-order Gaussian shape, the transverse modes of the beam can be described as a superposition of Hermite-Gaussian or Laguerre-Gaussian beams (for stable-cavity lasers). Unstable laser resonators on the other hand, have been shown to produce fractal shaped beams (Link to original article in Nature Vol. 402, 138 (11 November 1999)) [1]. The beam may be highly collimated, that is being parallel without diverging. However, a perfectly collimated beam cannot be created, due to diffraction. The beam remains collimated over a distance which varies with the square of the beam diameter, and eventually diverges at an angle which varies inversely with the beam diameter. Thus, a beam generated by a small laboratory laser such as a helium-neon laser spreads to about 1.6 kilometers (1 mile) diameter if shone from the Earth to the Moon. By comparison, the output of a typical semiconductor laser, due to its small diameter, diverges almost as soon as it leaves the aperture, at an angle of anything up to 50°. However, such a divergent beam can be transformed into a collimated beam by means of a lens. In contrast, the light from non-laser light sources cannot be collimated by optics as well or much.
The output of a laser may be a continuous constant-amplitude output (known as CW or continuous wave); or pulsed, by using the techniques of Q-switching, modelocking, or gain-switching. In pulsed operation, much higher peak powers can be achieved.
Some types of lasers, such as dye lasers and vibronic solid-state lasers can produce light over a broad range of wavelengths; this property makes them suitable for generating extremely short pulses of light, on the order of a few femtoseconds (10-15 s).
Although the laser phenomenon was discovered with the help of quantum physics, it is not essentially more quantum mechanical than other light sources. The operation of a free electron laser can be explained without reference to quantum mechanics.
It is understood that the word light in the acronym Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation is typically used in the expansive sense, as photons of any energy; it is not limited to photons in the visible spectrum. Hence there are infrared lasers, ultraviolet lasers, X-ray lasers, etc. For example, a source of atoms in a coherent state can be called an atom laser.
Because the microwave equivalent of the laser, the maser, was developed first, devices that emit microwave and radio frequencies are usually called masers. In early literature, particularly from researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories, the laser was often called the optical maser. This usage has since become uncommon, and as of 1998 even Bell Labs uses the term laser.[2]
[edit] History
[edit] Foundations
In 1917, Albert Einstein in his paper Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum Theory of Radiation), laid the foundation for the invention of the laser and its predecessor, the maser, in a ground-breaking rederivation of Max Planck's law of radiation based on the concepts of probability coefficients (later to be termed 'Einstein coefficients') for the absorption, spontaneous, and stimulated emission.
In 1928, Rudolph W. Landenburg confirmed the existence of stimulated emission and negative absorption.[3]
In 1939, Valentin A. Fabrikant (USSR) predicted the use of stimulated emission to amplify "short" waves.[4]
In 1947, Willis E. Lamb and R. C. Retherford found apparent stimulated emission in hydrogen spectra and made the first demonstration of stimulated emission.[5]
In 1950, Alfred Kastler (Nobel Prize for Physics 1966) proposed the method of optical pumping, which was experimentally confirmed by Brossel, Kastler and Winter two years later.[6]
[edit] Maser
In 1953, Charles H. Townes and graduate students James P. Gordon and Herbert J. Zeiger produced the first microwave amplifier, a device operating on similar principles to the laser, but amplifying microwave rather than infrared or visible radiation. Townes's maser was incapable of continuous output. Nikolay Basov and Aleksandr Prokhorov of the Soviet Union worked independently on the quantum oscillator and solved the problem of continuous output systems by using more than two energy levels and produced the first maser. These systems could release stimulated emission without falling to the ground state, thus maintaining a population inversion. In 1955 Prokhorov and Basov suggested an optical pumping of multilevel system as a method for obtaining the population inversion, which later became one of the main methods of laser pumping.
Townes, Basov, and Prokhorov shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964 "For fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle".
[edit] Laser
In 1957, Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow, then at Bell Labs, began a serious study of the infrared maser. As ideas were developed, infrared frequencies were abandoned with focus on visible light instead. The concept was originally known as an "optical maser". Bell Labs filed a patent application for their proposed optical maser a year later. Schawlow and Townes sent a manuscript of their theoretical calculations to Physical Review, which published their paper that year (Volume 112, Issue 6).
The first page of Gordon Gould's laser notebook in which he coined the acronym LASER and described the essential elements for constructing one.
The first page of Gordon Gould's laser notebook in which he coined the acronym LASER and described the essential elements for constructing one.
At the same time Gordon Gould, a graduate student at Columbia University, was working on a doctoral thesis on the energy levels of excited thallium. Gould and Townes met and had conversations on the general subject of radiation emission. Afterwards Gould made notes about his ideas for a "laser" in November 1957, including suggesting using an open resonator, which became an important ingredient of future lasers.
In 1958, Prokhorov independently proposed using an open resonator, the first published appearance of this idea. Schawlow and Townes also settled on an open resonator design, apparently unaware of both the published work of Prokhorov and the unpublished work of Gould.
The term "laser" was first introduced to the public in Gould's 1959 conference paper "The LASER, Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation".[7] Gould intended "-aser" to be a suffix, to be used with an appropriate prefix for the spectra of light emitted by the device (x-ray laser = xaser, ultraviolet laser = uvaser, etc.). None of the other terms became popular, although "raser" was used for a short time to describe radio-frequency emitting devices.
Gould's notes included possible applications for a laser, such as spectrometry, interferometry, radar, and nuclear fusion. He continued working on his idea and filed a patent application in April 1959. The U.S. Patent Office denied his application and awarded a patent to Bell Labs in 1960. This sparked a legal battle that ran 28 years, with scientific prestige and much money at stake. Gould won his first minor patent in 1977, but it was not until 1987 that he could claim his first significant patent victory when a federal judge ordered the government to issue patents to him for the optically pumped laser and the gas discharge laser.
The first working laser was made by Theodore H. Maiman in 1960[8] at Hughes Research Laboratories in Malibu, California, beating several research teams including those of Townes at Columbia University, Arthur L. Schawlow at Bell Labs,[9] and Gould at a company called TRG (Technical Research Group). Maiman used a solid-state flashlamp-pumped synthetic ruby crystal to produce red laser light at 694 nanometres wavelength. Maiman's laser, however, was only capable of pulsed operation due to its three energy level pumping scheme.
Later in 1960 the Iranian physicist Ali Javan, working with William Bennet and Donald Herriot, made the first gas laser using helium and neon. Javan later received the Albert Einstein Award in 1993.
The concept of the semiconductor laser diode was proposed by Basov and Javan. The first laser diode was demonstrated by Robert N. Hall in 1962. Hall's device was made of gallium arsenide and emitted at 850 nm in the near-infrared region of the spectrum. The first semiconductor laser with visible emission was demonstrated later the same year by Nick Holonyak, Jr. As with the first gas lasers, these early semiconductor lasers could be used only in pulsed operation, and indeed only when cooled to liquid nitrogen temperatures (77 K).
In 1970, Zhores Alferov in the Soviet Union and Izuo Hayashi and Morton Panish of Bell Telephone Laboratories independently developed laser diodes continuously operating at room temperature, using the heterojunction structure.
[edit] Recent innovations
This short section requires expansion.
Graph showing the history of maximum laser pulse intensity throughout the past 40 years.
Graph showing the history of maximum laser pulse intensity throughout the past 40 years.
Since the early period of laser history, laser research has produced a variety of improved and specialized laser types, optimized for different performance goals, including:
* new wavelength bands
* maximum average output power
* maximum peak output power
* minimum output pulse duration
* maximum power efficiency
* maximum charging
* maximum firing
and this research continues to this day.
Lasing without maintaining the medium excited into a population inversion, was discovered in 1992 in sodium gas and again in 1995 in rubidium gas by various international teams. This was accomplished by using an external maser to induce "optical transparency" in the medium by introducing and destructively interfering the ground electron transitions between two paths, so that the likelihood for the ground electrons to absorb any energy has been cancelled.
In 1985 at the University of Rochester's Laboratory for Laser Energetics a breakthrough in creating ultrashort-pulse, very high-intensity (terawatts) laser pulses became available using a technique called chirped pulse amplification, or CPA, discovered by Gérard Mourou. These high intensity pulses can produce filament propagation in the atmosphere.
[edit] Types and operating principles
For a more complete list of laser types see this list of laser types.
Spectral output of several types of lasers.
Spectral output of several types of lasers.
[edit] Gas lasers
Gas lasers using many gases have been built and used for many purposes. They are one of the oldest types of laser.
The helium-neon laser (HeNe) emits at a variety of wavelengths and units operating at 633 nm are very common in education because of its low cost.
Carbon dioxide lasers can emit hundreds of kilowatts[10] at 9.6 µm and 10.6 µm, and are often used in industry for cutting and welding. The efficiency of a CO2 laser is over 10%.
Argon-ion lasers emit 458 nm, 488 nm or 514.5 nm.
Carbon monoxide lasers must be cooled but can produce up to 500 kW.[citation needed]
A nitrogen transverse electrical discharge in gas at atmospheric pressure (TEA) laser is an inexpensive gas laser producing UV Light at 337.1 nm.[citation needed]
Metal ion lasers are gas lasers that generate deep ultraviolet wavelengths. Helium-silver (HeAg) 224 nm and neon-copper (NeCu) 248 nm are two examples. These lasers have particularly narrow oscillation linewidths of less than 3 GHz (0.5 picometers),[11] making them candidates for use in fluorescence suppressed Raman spectroscopy.
[edit] Chemical lasers
Chemical lasers are powered by a chemical reaction, and can achieve high powers in continuous operation. For example, in the Hydrogen fluoride laser (2700-2900 nm) and the Deuterium fluoride laser (3800 nm) the reaction is the combination of hydrogen or deuterium gas with combustion products of ethylene in nitrogen trifluoride. They were invented by George C. Pimentel.
[edit] Excimer lasers
Excimer lasers are powered by a chemical reaction involving an excited dimer, or excimer, which is a short-lived dimeric or heterodimeric molecule formed from two species (atoms), at least one of which is in an excited electronic state. They typically produce ultraviolet light, and are used in semiconductor photolithography and in LASIK eye surgery. Commonly used excimer molecules include F2 (fluorine, emitting at 157 nm), and noble gas compounds (ArF (193 nm), KrCl (222 nm), KrF (248 nm), XeCl (308 nm), and XeF (351 nm)).
[edit] Solid-state lasers
A 50W FASOR, based on a Nd:YAG laser, used at the Starfire Optical Range
A 50W FASOR, based on a Nd:YAG laser, used at the Starfire Optical Range
Solid state laser materials are commonly made by doping a crystalline solid host with ions that provide the required energy states. For example, the first working laser was a ruby laser, made from ruby (chromium-doped corundum).
Neodymium is a common dopant in various solid state laser crystals, including yttrium orthovanadate (Nd:YVO4), yttrium lithium fluoride (Nd:YLF) and yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG). All these lasers can produce high powers in the infrared spectrum at 1064nm. They are used for cutting, welding and marking of metals and other materials, and also in spectroscopy and for pumping dye lasers. These lasers are also commonly frequency doubled, tripled or quadrupled to produce 532nm (green, visible), 355nm (UV) and 266nm (UV) light when those wavelengths are needed.
Ytterbium, holmium, thulium, and erbium are other common dopants in solid state lasers. Ytterbium is used in crystals such as Yb:YAG, Yb:KGW, Yb:KYW, Yb:SYS, Yb:BOYS, Yb:CaF2, typically operating around 1020-1050 nm. They are potentially very efficient and high powered due to a small quantum defect. Extremely high powers in ultrashort pulses can be achieved with Yb:YAG. Holmium-doped YAG crystals emit at 2097 nm and form an efficient laser operating at infrared wavelengths strongly absorbed by water-bearing tissues. The Ho-YAG is usually operated in a pulsed mode, and passed through optical fiber surgical devices to resurface joints, remove rot from teeth, vaporize cancers, and pulverize kidney and gall stones.
Titanium-doped sapphire (Ti:sapphire) produces a highly tunable infrared laser, commonly used for spectroscopy as well as the most common ultrashort pulse laser.
Thermal limitations in solid-state lasers arise from unconverted pump power that manifests itself as heat and phonon energy. This heat, when coupled with a high thermo-optic coefficient (dn/dT) can give rise to thermal lensing as well as reduced quantum efficiency. These types of issues can be overcome by another novel diode-pumped solid state laser, the diode-pumped thin disk laser. The thermal limitations in this laser type are mitigated by utilizing a laser medium geometry in which the thickness is much smaller than the diameter of the pump beam. This allows for a more even thermal gradient in the material. Thin disk lasers have been shown to produce up to kiloWatt levels of power.[12]
[edit] Fiber-hosted lasers
Solid state lasers also include glass or optical fiber hosted lasers, for example, with erbium or ytterbium ions as the active species. These allow extremely long gain regions and can support very high output powers because the fiber's high surface area to volume ratio allows efficient cooling. In addition, the fiber's waveguiding properties tend to reduce thermal distortion of the beam. Quite often, the fiber is designed as a double-clad glass fiber. This type of fiber consists of a fiber core, an inner cladding and an outer cladding. The index of the three concentric layers is chosen so that the fiber core acts as a single-mode fiber for the laser emission while the outer cladding acts as a highly multimode core for the pump laser. This lets the pump propagate a large amount of power into and through the active inner core region, while still having a high numerical aperture (NA) to have easy launching conditions. Fiber lasers have a fundamental limit in that the intensity of the light in the fiber cannot be so high that optical nonlinearities induced by the local electric field strength can become dominant and prevent laser operation and/or lead to the material destruction of the fiber.
[edit] Semiconductor lasers
Commercial laser diodes emit at wavelengths from 375 nm to 1800 nm, and wavelengths of over 3 µm have been demonstrated. Low power laser diodes are used in laser printers and CD/DVD players. More powerful laser diodes are frequently used to optically pump other lasers with high efficiency. The highest power industrial laser diodes, with power up to 10 kW, are used in industry for cutting and welding. External-cavity semiconductor lasers have a semiconductor active medium in a larger cavity. These devices can generate high power outputs with good beam quality, wavelength-tunable narrow-linewidth radiation, or ultrashort laser pulses.
Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) are semiconductor lasers whose emission direction is perpendicular to the surface of the wafer. VCSEL devices typically have a more circular output beam than conventional laser diodes, and potentially could be much cheaper to manufacture. As of 2005, only 850 nm VCSELs are widely available, with 1300 nm VCSELs beginning to be commercialized,[13] and 1550 nm devices an area of research. VECSELs are external-cavity VCSELs. Quantum cascade lasers are semiconductor lasers that have an active transition between energy sub-bands of an electron in a structure containing several quantum wells.
The development of a silicon laser is important in the field of optical computing, since it means that if silicon, the chief ingredient of computer chips, were able to produce lasers, it would allow the light to be manipulated like electrons are in normal integrated circuits. Thus, photons would replace electrons in the circuits, which dramatically increases the speed of the computer. Unfortunately, silicon is a difficult lasing material to deal with, since it has certain properties which block lasing. However, recently teams have produced silicon lasers through methods such as fabricating the lasing material from silicon and other semiconductor materials, such as indium(III) phosphide or gallium(III) arsenide, materials which allow coherent light to be produced from silicon. These are called hybrid silicon laser. Another type is a Raman laser, which takes advantage of Raman scattering to produce a laser from materials such as silicon.
[edit] Dye lasers
Dye lasers use an organic dye as the gain medium. The wide gain spectrum of available dyes allows these lasers to be highly tunable, or to produce very short-duration pulses (on the order of a few femtoseconds).
[edit] Free electron lasers
Free electron lasers, or FELs, generate coherent, high power radiation, that is widely tunable, currently ranging in wavelength from microwaves, through terahertz radiation and infrared, to the visible spectrum, to soft X-rays. They have the widest frequency range of any laser type. While FEL beams share the same optical traits as other lasers, such as coherent radiation, FEL operation is quite different. Unlike gas, liquid, or solid-state lasers, which rely on bound atomic or molecular states, FELs use a relativistic electron beam as the lasing medium, hence the term free electron.
[edit] Continuous wave and pulsed lasers
A laser may either be built to emit a continuous beam or a train of short pulses. This makes fundamental differences in construction, usable laser media, and applications.
[edit] Continuous wave operation
In the continuous wave (CW) mode of operation, the output of a laser is relatively consistent with respect to time. The population inversion required for lasing is continually maintained by a steady pump source.
[edit] Pulsed operation
In the pulsed mode of operation, the output of a laser varies with respect to time, typically taking the form of alternating 'on' and 'off' periods. In many applications one aims to deposit as much energy as possible at a given place in as short time as possible. In laser ablation for example, a small volume of material at the surface of a work piece might evaporate if it gets the energy required to heat it up far enough in very short time. If, however, the same energy is spread over a longer time, the heat may have time to disperse into the bulk of the piece, and less material evaporates. There are a number of methods to achieve this.
[edit] Q-switching
Main article: Q-switching
In a Q-switched laser, the population inversion (usually produced in the same way as CW operation) is allowed to build up by making the cavity conditions (the 'Q') unfavorable for lasing. Then, when the pump energy stored in the laser medium is at the desired level, the 'Q' is adjusted (electro- or acousto-optically) to favorable conditions, releasing the pulse. This results in high peak powers as the average power of the laser (were it running in CW mode) is packed into a shorter time frame.
[edit] Modelocking
Main article: Modelocking
A modelocked laser emits extremely short pulses on the order of tens of picoseconds down to less than 10 femtoseconds. These pulses are typically separated by the time that a pulse takes to complete one round trip in the resonator cavity. Due to the Fourier limit (also known as energy-time uncertainty), a pulse of such short temporal length has a spectrum which contains a wide range of wavelengths. Because of this, the laser medium must have a broad enough gain profile to amplify them all. An example of a suitable material is titanium-doped, artificially grown sapphire (Ti:sapphire).
The modelocked laser is a most versatile tool for researching processes happening at extremely fast time scales (femtosecond physics and femtosecond chemistry, also called ultrafast science), for maximizing the effect of nonlinearity in optical materials (e.g. in second-harmonic generation, parametric down-conversion, optical parametric oscillators and the like), and in ablation applications. Again, because of the short timescales involved, these lasers can achieve extremely high peak powers.
[edit] Pulsed pumping
Another method of achieving pulsed laser operation is to pump the laser material with a source that is itself pulsed, either through electronic charging in the case of flashlamps, or another laser which is already pulsed. Pulsed pumping was historically used with dye lasers where the inverted population lifetime of a dye molecule was so short that a high energy, fast pump was needed. The way to overcome this problem was to charge up large capacitors which are then switched to discharge through flashlamps, producing a broad spectrum pump flash. Pulsed pumping is also required for lasers which disrupt the gain medium so much during the laser process that lasing has to cease for a short period. These lasers, such as the excimer laser and the copper vapour laser, can never be operated in CW mode.
[edit] Uses
Lasers range in size from microscopic diode lasers (top) with numerous applications, to football field sized neodymium glass lasers (bottom) used for inertial confinement fusion, nuclear weapons research and other high energy density physics experiments.
Lasers range in size from microscopic diode lasers (top) with numerous applications, to football field sized neodymium glass lasers (bottom) used for inertial confinement fusion, nuclear weapons research and other high energy density physics experiments.
Main article: Laser applications
When lasers were invented in 1960, they were called "a solution looking for a problem". Since then, they have become ubiquitous, finding utility in thousands of highly varied applications in every section of modern society, including consumer electronics, information technology, science, medicine, industry, law enforcement, entertainment, and the military.
The first application of lasers visible in the daily lives of the general population was the supermarket barcode scanner, introduced in 1974. The laserdisc player, introduced in 1978, was the first successful consumer product to include a laser, but the compact disc player was the first laser-equipped device to become truly common in consumers' homes, beginning in 1982, followed shortly by laser printers.
In 2004, excluding diode lasers, approximately 131,000 lasers were sold world-wide, with a value of US$2.19 billion.[14] In the same year, approximately 733 million diode lasers, valued at $3.20 billion, were sold.[15]
[edit] Example uses by typical output power
Different uses need lasers with different output powers. Many lasers are designed for a higher peak output with an extremely short pulse, and this requires different technology from a continuous wave (constant output) lasers, as are used in communication, or cutting. Output power is always less than the input power needed to generate the beam.
The peak power required for some uses:
* 5 mW - CD-ROM drive
* 5-10 mW - DVD player
* 100 mW - CD-R drive
* 250 mW - output power of Sony SLD253VL red laser diode, used in consumer 48-52 speed CD-R burner.[16]
* 1 W - green laser in current Holographic Versatile Disc prototype development.
* 100 to 3000 W (peak output 1.5 kW) - typical sealed CO2 lasers used in industrial laser cutting.
* 1 kW - Output power expected to be achieved by "a single 1 cm diode laser bar"[17]
* 700 terawatts (TW) - The National Ignition Facility is working on a system that, when complete, will contain a 192-beam, 1.8-megajoule laser system adjoining a 10-meter-diameter target chamber.[18] The system is expected to be completed in April of 2009.
* 1.25 petawatts (PW) - world's most powerful laser (claimed on 23 May 1996 by Lawrence Livermore Laboratory).
[edit] Laser safety
Warning symbol for lasers
Warning symbol for lasers
Main articles: Laser safety and Lasers and aviation safety
Even the first laser was recognized as being potentially dangerous. Theodore Maiman characterized the first laser as two "Gillettes"; as it could burn through one Gillette razor blade. Today, it is accepted that even low-power lasers with only a few milliwatts of output power can be hazardous to human eyesight.
At wavelengths which the cornea and the lens can focus well, the coherence and low divergence of laser light means that it can be focused by the eye into an extremely small spot on the retina, resulting in localized burning and permanent damage in seconds or even less time. Lasers are classified into safety classes numbered I (inherently safe) to IV (even scattered light can cause eye and/or skin damage). Laser products available for consumers, such as CD players and laser pointers are usually in class I, II, or III. Certain infrared lasers with wavelengths beyond about 1.4 micrometres are often referred to as being "eye-safe". This is because the intrinsic molecular vibrations of water molecules very strongly absorb light in this part of the spectrum, and thus a laser beam at these wavelengths is attenuated so completely as it passes through the eye's cornea that no light remains to be focused by the lens onto the retina. The label "eye-safe" can be misleading, however, as it only applies to relatively low power continuous wave beams and any high power or q-switched laser at these wavelengths can burn the cornea, causing severe eye damage.
[edit] Related terminology
In analogy with optical lasers, a device which produces any particles or electromagnetic radiation in a coherent state is also called a "laser", usually with indication of type of particle as prefix (for example, atom laser.) In most cases, "laser" refers to a source of coherent light or other electromagnetic radiation.
The back-formed verb lase means "to produce laser light" or "to apply laser light to".[19]
[edit] Popular misconceptions
The representation of lasers in popular culture, especially in science fiction and action movies, is often misleading. Contrary to their portrayal in many science fiction movies, a laser beam would not be visible (at least to the naked eye) in the near vacuum of space as there would be insufficient matter to cause scattering, except if there were a significant amount of fine shrapnel and other organic particles in that region.
In air, however, moderate intensity (tens of mW/cm²) laser beams of shorter green and blue wavelengths and high intensity beams of longer orange and red wavelengths can be visible due to Rayleigh scattering. With even higher intensity pulsed beams, the air can be heated to the point where it becomes a plasma, which is also visible. This causes rapid heating and explosive expansion of the surrounding air, which makes a popping noise analogous to the thunder which accompanies lightning. This phenomenon can cause retro-reflection of the laser beam back into the laser source, possibly damaging its optics. When this phenomenon occurs in certain scientific experiments it is referred to as a "plasma mirror" or "plasma shutter".
Some action movies depict security systems using lasers of visible light (and their foiling by the hero, typically using mirrors); the hero may see the path of the beam by sprinkling some dust in the air. It is far easier and cheaper to build infrared laser diodes rather than visible light laser diodes, and such systems almost never use visible light lasers. Additionally, putting enough dust in the air to make the beam visible is likely to be enough to "break" the beam and trigger the alarm (as demonstrated on an episode of Mythbusters on the Discovery Channel).
Science fiction films special effects often depict laser beams propagating at only a few metres per second—slowly enough to see their progress, in a manner reminiscent of conventional tracer ammunition—whereas in reality a laser beam travels at the speed of light and would seem to appear instantly to the naked eye from start to end. Some fans claim that the "laser beams" shown in such movies are in fact other type of sci-fi weaponry, such as particle beams or plasma weapons.
Several of these misconceptions can be found in the 1964 James Bond film Goldfinger, which was probably the first film to use a laser in its plot. In one of the most famous scenes in the Bond films, Bond, played by Sean Connery, faces a laser beam approaching his groin while melting the solid gold table to which he is strapped. The director Guy Hamilton found that a real laser beam would not show up on camera so it was added as an optical effect. The table was precut up the middle and coated with gold paint, while the melting effect was achieved by a man below the table with an oxyacetylene torch. Goldfinger's laser makes a whirring electronic sound, while a real laser would have produced a fairly heat-free and silent cut.[20]
In addition to movies and popular culture, laser misconceptions are present in some popular science publications or simple introductory explanations such as laser light is not perfectly parallel as is sometimes claimed; all laser beams spread out to some degree as they propagate due to diffraction. In addition, no laser is perfectly monochromatic (i.e. coherent); most operate at several closely spaced frequencies (colors) and even those that nominally operate a single frequency still exhibit some variation in frequency. Furthermore, mode locked lasers are designed to operate with thousands or millions of frequencies locked together to form a short pulse.
[edit] Fictional predictions
For lasers in fiction, see also raygun.
Before stimulated emission was discovered, novelists used to describe machines that we can identify as "lasers".
* The first fictional device similar to a military CO2 laser (see Heat-Ray) appears in the sci-fi novel The War of the Worlds by H. G. Wells in 1898.
* A laser-like device was described in Alexey Tolstoy's sci-fi novel The Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin in 1927: see Raygun#In specific scenarios (scroll down to alphabetical order 'H' in the left column).
* Mikhail Bulgakov exaggerated the biological effect (laser biostimulation) of intensive red light in his sci-fi novel Fatal Eggs (1925), without any reasonable description of the source of this red light. (In that novel, the red light first appears occasionally from the illuminating system of an advanced microscope; then the protagonist Prof. Persikov arranges the special set-up for generation of the red light.)
[edit] Hobby uses
In recent years, some hobbyists have taken interests in lasers. Lasers used by hobbyists are generally of class IIIa or IIIb, although some have made their own class IV types.[21] However, compared to other hobbyists, laser hobbyists are far less common, due to the cost and potential dangers involved. Due to the cost of lasers, some hobbyists use inexpensive means to obtain lasers, such as extracting diodes from DVD burners.[22]
一座大廈倒下情況
Building In India Falls Over - Watch more free videos
Apartment building)，是多層及多單位建築物，在土地少人口多的都市是常見的建築模式。其中，大廈的每個單可能不是同一伙人傢具有業權或使用權。大廈的基建設施有自來水、電力供應、排污管道、門、窗、主力牆、公眾走廊、樓梯、升降機、避雷針、天台、水箱、電話線等。 如果稱得為豪宅的可能有私人會所、游泳池、網球場、健身房、物業管理等。 甚至有些大廈有購物商場、電影院等。
煙花互射 好好笑
Roman Candle Battle - Watch more free videos
煙花是有兩次的爆炸的，煙火是只有一次爆炸的[來源請求]，在日本稱之為花火。煙花在中國發明也較早，主要用於軍事上、盛大的典禮或表演中。
《後武林舊事》記有宋孝宗觀海潮放煙火的情景說：「淳熙十年（公元1183年）八月十八日，上詣德壽宮，共請兩殿往浙江觀潮……管軍命於江面分佈五陣，乘騎弄旗，標槍舞刀，如履平地。點放五色煙炮滿江、及煙收、炮息，則諸船盡藏，不見一隻。」宋理宗（公元1225年至1264年）時，周密在《齊東野語》中也記載了當時皇宮觀看煙花的故事。到元、明年間，許多詩人、文學家都有有關鞭爆煙花這方面的記述。自清代以來鞭爆煙花使用普遍了。
目錄
[隱藏]
* 1 原理
* 2 金屬焰色反應
* 3 以「煙花」或「花火」為名的電影
* 4 外部連結
[編輯] 原理
這個條目或段落的語調被認為不適合百科全書。
請協助改寫條目，或前往討論頁討論修改辦法。請您閱讀維基百科的更優秀條目寫作指南。
2007年香港特別行政區成立十周年紀念
2007年香港特別行政區成立十周年紀念
一支手持冷焰火
一支手持冷焰火
煙花的化學原理，其實和爆竹的大同小異，其結構都包含黑火藥和藥引。燃放煙花後，類似以上提到的化學反應引發爆炸，而爆炸過程中所釋放出來的能量，絕大部分轉化成光能呈現在我們眼中。
煙花的最大特色是能夠放出五彩繽紛的顏色。到底煙花內有甚麼神秘的成份呢？關鍵是在製作煙花的過程中加入一些發光劑和發色劑。
發光劑是金屬鎂或金屬鋁的粉末。當這些金屬燃燒時，會發出白熾的強光。發色劑其實只不過是一些金屬化合物。金屬化合物含有金屬離子。當這些金屬離子被燃燒時，會發放出獨特的火焰顏色。不同種類的金屬化合物在燃燒時，會發放出不同顏色的光芒。
舉例說，氯化鈉和硫酸鈉都屬於鈉的化合物，他們在燃燒時便會發出金黃色火焰。 同樣道理，硝酸鈣和碳酸鈣在燃燒時會發出磚紅色火焰 。
其實在化學科，我們常常會運用以上結果來測試物質中所含的金屬。這類型的實驗稱為焰色試驗 (flame test)。煙花便是利用金屬的這種特性製成的。製作煙花的人經過巧妙的排列，決定燃燒的先後次序。這樣，煙花引爆後，便能在漆黑的天空中綻放出鮮豔奪目、五彩繽紛的圖案了。
[編輯] 金屬焰色反應
以下列出一些常見的煙火顏色及其對應的金屬離子。
金屬離子 火焰顏色
鉀（K+） 紫色
鈉（Na+） 金黃色
鈣（Ca2+） 磚紅色
銅（Cu2+） 藍綠色
鋇（Ba2+） 蘋果綠色
鐵（Fe3+） 金黃色
鍶（Sr2+） 血紅色
[編輯] 以「煙花」或「花火」為名的電影
* 煙花 (電視劇)
* 花火 (日本電影)
* 花火 (香港電影)
* 去年煙花特別多
林寶堅尼跑車空中翻身 Lamborghini Murcielago
Redline Lambo Crash - Watch more free videos
藍寶堅尼汽車有限公司（Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A.）是一家坐落於義大利聖亞加塔•波隆尼（Sant'Agata Bolognese）的超級跑車製造公司。1963年，經由創業者費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼（Ferruccio Lamborghini）設立公司[1]。
早期，曾因公司營運不善，數度易手經營權。但是，唯一不變的傳統是皆視「法拉利汽車」（Ferrari S.p.A.）所推出的車輛，為主要競爭對象。1998年，成為「奧迪汽車」（Audi AG）旗下公司。目前，為「大眾集團」（Volkswagen Group）間接所持有的品牌名稱之一。
目錄
[隱藏]
* 1 概述
* 2 傳言
o 2.1 創廠原因
o 2.2 徽章由來
* 3 車型列表
o 3.1 市售車輛
o 3.2 概念車型
* 4 經營者／經營公司
* 5 品牌行銷
* 6 相關條目
* 7 備註
* 8 外部連結
[編輯] 概述
* 1963年，經由創業者費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼設立公司。1963年8月，完成位於「聖亞加塔•波隆尼」（Sant'Agata Bolognese）的製造工廠。同年10月26日，義大利「都靈車展」（Turin Motor Show）裏，展出首部概念車型Lamborghini 350GT Concept。
* 1964年，推出首部市售車輛Lamborghini 350GTV。
* 1971年8月，正逢南美州地區政局變化，首度出現資金周轉不靈的情況，使得費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼出脫手上51%股份。同年，推出Lamborghini Countach（義大利文Countach代表『驚奇』），呈現鍘刀車門造型，跨越時空的設計，已成為往後車輛相仿的造型之一。
* 1974年9月，遭逢國際石油危機影響下，再度出現資金周轉不靈的情況，迫使費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼全數出脫手上49%股份給予友人。從此，費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼離開所經營的公司，自汽車業界退休。
* 1978年4月，尋求「寶馬汽車」（Bayerische Motoren Werke AG）代工生產BMW M1的合作契約，但礙於對方不信任而破局。促使其宣佈破產，由義大利政府管理。
* 1987年，「克萊斯勒」（Chrysler Corporation）以2500萬美金，買下所有權。
* 1993年11月，「MegaTech」（Megatech Control Ltd.）向「克萊斯勒」以4100萬美金，買下製造工廠與技術部門。
* 1998年6月22日，「奧迪汽車」付1億美金，買下「MegaTech」（Megatech Control Ltd.）所佔的40%股份和「Mycom」所佔的60%股份，成為35年來第7位擁有者[2]。目前，為大眾汽車集團間接所持有的品牌名稱之一。
[編輯] 傳言
Lamborghini農業車輛
Lamborghini農業車輛
1961 Ferrari 250 GT California Spyder
1961 Ferrari 250 GT California Spyder
Lamborghini商標徽章
Lamborghini商標徽章
[編輯] 創廠原因
目前，流傳有數個版本關於費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼為什麼開設汽車製造公司的原因，多數版本都指向與恩佐•法拉利（Enzo Ferrari）有關聯。
然而，上述那些的說法，並非事實。歐洲的大眾媒體也許經常做把這當成真實新聞，這誤會也經日本的汽車相關媒體順著引入日本國內，並給予都市傳說化罷了。往後，更形成狂熱愛好者和反對狂熱愛好者之間的流言斐語。
日本的雜社曾經專訪過費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼的妻子，她則當下立即反對此類說法。依據她的談話指出：『費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼以自己使用車輛的結果，找到那品質的疑問是事實。但是，之後的部分，卻有所不同』。實際上，費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼將改善車輛的部分想法，提案寫成書信寄給對方，但始終得不到回應。既然如此，不如自己來挑戰做做看汽車行業，即為事實的真相。日文基維
* 部分證實：經由東尼諾•藍寶堅尼（Tonino Lamborghini）口述[1]。駕駛Ferrari 250 GT的費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼投訴車輛離合器出現問題，誤傷觀賞賽車的民眾。然而，恩佐•法拉利非但不太理採，還告訴費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼沒能力駕駛Ferrari 250 GT，只適合駕駛農業機械車輛。後來，費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼在自己公司倉庫裏，找到一個合適的備用配件安裝，解決Ferrari 250 GT問題。
* 未經證實：傳聞1963年夏季，恩佐•法拉利乘坐費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼所購買的Ferrari 250 GT時（另有一說，是在家中談話），靜靜聆聽費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼述說Ferrari 250 GT這部車輛如何的優秀。但是，當費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼提出Ferrari 250 GT車輛裏的變速箱缺點時，恩佐•法拉利臉色一沉說：『用不著製造農業機械車輛的人，告訴我如何製造跑車』！自此，雙方不歡而散。同時，費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼決定自行涉足跑車事業。堅信就算在車輛出售之後，也應該對顧客付出真誠的關心，基於這種關心的態度而持續售後服務，才是事業所以成功的不變法則。
* 考據事實：當時，義大利政府始終拒絕頒予直昇機執照給費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼。迫於無奈的情形之下，只好捨棄直昇機公司，往汽車事業發展。
[編輯] 徽章由來
目前，較為普遍的說法是，創業者費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼出生於1916年4月28日，當天正巧屬於金牛座，故以此為徽章。近來，另有「蠻牛」（Lamborghini徽章）抗衡「躍馬」（Ferrari徽章）的傳言產生。
[編輯] 車型列表
Lamborghini Countach LP500
Lamborghini Countach LP500
Lamborghini Diablo
Lamborghini Diablo
2004 Lamborghini Gallardo
2004 Lamborghini Gallardo
2005 Lamborghini Murciélago Roadster
2005 Lamborghini Murciélago Roadster
2006 Lamborghini Murciélago
2006 Lamborghini Murciélago
[編輯] 市售車輛
依車型生產年度及順序排列。車型列表如下：
車輛型號 製造年度 引擎型式 排氣量 極速
350GTV 1963 Lamborghini V12 3464 cc 280 km/h
350GT 1964－1968 Lamborghini V12 3464 cc 240 km/h
400GT 2+2 1966－1968 Lamborghini V12 3929 cc 250 km/h
Miura 1966－1973 Lamborghini V12 3929 cc 288 km/h
Espada 1968－1978 Lamborghini V12 3929 cc 245 km/h
Islero 1968－1970 Lamborghini V12 3929 cc 248 km/h
Jarama 1970－1978 Lamborghini V12 3929 cc 240 km/h
Urraco 1970－1979 Lamborghini V8 2463/2996/1994 cc 230 km/h
Countach 1974－1989 Lamborghini V12 3929/4754/5167 cc 295 km/h
Silhouette 1976－1977 Lamborghini V8 2996 cc 260 km/h
Jalpa 1982－1989 Lamborghini V8 3485 cc 240 km/h
LM002 1986－1992 Lamborghini V12 5167 cc 210 km/h
Diablo 1990－2001 Lamborghini V12 5707/5992 cc 330 km/h
Murciélago 2001－2006 Lamborghini V12 6192 cc 330 km/h
Murciélago R-GT 2001－至今 Lamborghini V12 N/A N/A
Gallardo 2003－至今 Lamborghini V10 4961 cc 309 km/h
Gallardo Spyder 2004－至今 Lamborghini V10 4961 cc 307 km/h
Murciélago Roadster 2005－2007 Lamborghini V12 6192 cc 330 km/h
Gallardo SE 2006－至今 Lamborghini V10 4961 cc 315 km/h
Murciélago LP640 2006－至今 Lamborghini V12 6496 cc 340 km/h
Murciélago LP640 Roadster 2006－至今 Lamborghini V12 6496 cc 330 km/h
[編輯] 概念車型
車型名稱 年度 引擎型式 排氣量 極速 備註
350 GTV Concept 1963 Lamborghini V12 3464 cc 280 km/h
Flying Star II Concept 1966 Lamborghini V12 ？ cc 225 km/h
Marzal Concept 1967 Lamborghini V12 ？ cc 225 km/h
Bravo Concept 1974 Lamborghini V8 ？ cc ？ km/h
Cheetah Concept 1977 ？ ？ cc ？ km/h
Athon 1980 Lamborghini V8 ？ cc ？ km/h
LM001 1981 Lamborghini V8 ？ cc ？ km/h
Marco Polo Concept 1982 ？ ？ cc ？ km/h
LMA002 1982 Lamborghini V12 ？ cc ？ km/h
Portofino Concept 1987 Lamborghini V8 3485 cc ？ km/h
Genesis Concept 1988 Lamborghini V12 ？cc ？ km/h
P140 Concept 1988 Lamborghini V10 3961 cc 299.3 km/h
Italdesign Cala Concept 1995 Lamborghini V10 3900 cc 290 km/h
Zagato Raptor 1996 Lamborghini V12 5700 cc 330 km/h
Murcielago Barchetta Concept 2002 Aluminum Alloy 6192 cc ？ km/h
Concept S 2005 Lamborghini V10 4961 cc ？ km/h
Miura concept 2006 ？ cc ？ [3]
[編輯] 經營者／經營公司
早期，曾因公司營運不善，數度易手經營權。相關列表如下﹕
年度 經營者／經營公司 股／年 性質 備註
1963年－1972年 費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼（Ferruccio Lamborghini） 100%／1963年－1972年
49%／1972年－1974年 實際經營
協助經營
1972年－1977年 喬治•亨利•羅塞帝（Georges-Henri Rossetti）
勒內•萊莫（René Leimer） 51%／1972年－1977年
49%／1974年－1977年 實際經營
股份持有
1977年－1984年 休伯特•哈內（Hubert Hahne）
雷蒙德•諾依瑪（Raymond Noima）
佐坦•雷帝（Zoltan Reti）
喬治•米龍（Giorgio Mirone）
阿萊桑德羅•阿特斯（Alessandro Artese） ？%／1977年—1978年
？%／1977年—1978年
100%／1977年－1978年
？%／1978年－1984年
？%／1978年－1984年 實際經營
股份持有
宣告破產
債權持有
債權持有
1984年－1987年 派屈克•米勒曼（Patrick Mimram） ？%／1980年—1984年 實際經營
1987年－1994年 克萊斯勒／李•艾科卡（Lee Iacocca） 100%／1987年—1994年 實際經營
1994年－1995年 Megatech Control Ltd. 100%／1994年－1995年 實際經營
1995年－1998年 V'Power Corporation
Mycom／湯米•蘇哈托（Tommy Suharto） 40%／1995年－1998年
60%／1995年－1998年 實際經營
股份持有
1998年－至今 奧迪汽車／大眾集團 100%／1998年－至今 實際經營
[編輯] 品牌行銷
近年來，「大眾集團」積極推廣「Lamborghini®」的品牌名稱，採取「異業結盟」的合作方式，提高品牌的附加價值。
合作公司 產品 名稱 年度 型號 備註
sparco 賽車鞋 Lamborghini® Racing Shoes ？ ？
？ 賽車錶 Lamborghini® Racing Chrono ？ 350GT
諾基亞 行動電話 Lamborghini® mobile phone 2006 8800 [4]
華碩 電腦 Lamborghini® Notebook（Laptop） 2006 VX1 [5]
電腦 Lamborghini® Notebook（Laptop） 2007 VX2 [6]
LaPavoni 咖啡機 Lamborghini® POD coffee machine 2007 TORINO [7]
[編輯] 相關條目
您可以在維基共享資源查找與此分類相關的多媒體資源：
Category:藍寶堅尼
* 費魯齊歐•藍寶堅尼（Ferruccio Lamborghini）
* 恩佐•法拉利（Enzo Ferrari）
* 法拉利汽車（Ferrari S.p.A.）
* 克萊斯勒（Chrysler Corporation）
* 大眾集團（Volkswagen Group）
* 大眾汽車（Volkswagen AG）
的士佬與林寶堅尼大激鬥 (賽車)
Lamborghini Countach VS Dodge Challenger - video powered by Metacafe
計程車，中國大部份地方稱作出租車，臺灣稱作計程車，香港和澳門稱為的士，新加坡及馬來西亞一帶則稱德士，日本則稱為タクシー；是按錶收費的交通工具，收費通常較其他交通工具高。
計程車載客量不多，一般只有4至5個座位。搭乘計程車除了揚手招呼外，還可利用電話預約。
目錄
[隱藏]
* 1 名稱由來
* 2 各地計程車
o 2.1 香港
o 2.2 澳門
o 2.3 新加坡
o 2.4 台灣
+ 2.4.1 計程收費
o 2.5 北京
o 2.6 上海
o 2.7 廣州
o 2.8 南韓
[編輯] 名稱由來
計程車英文「TAXI」為「taximeter」之略稱，即為「計程錶」或「里程計」。
的士、德士和タクシー，也是來自英文「TAXI」的譯音。
[編輯] 各地計程車
[編輯] 香港
香港市區的士
香港市區計程車
香港新界的士。
香港新界計程車。
主條目：香港計程車
香港的名為「的士」（TAXI的廣東話音譯）。香港計程車分3種，分別是：市區的士(紅色車身)、新界的士(綠色車身)及大嶼山的士(藍色車身)，3種的士中只有市區的士能在全港各處行走(除大嶼山南部及愉景灣)，新界的士只能在新界部分地區內行走(此外，新界的士亦可以指定路線前往荃灣地鐵站、沙田威爾斯親王醫院、觀塘順利邨、沙田馬場、坑口地鐵站、香港國際機場、青衣地鐵站及香港迪士尼樂園度假區)，大嶼山的士則只能在大嶼山南、東湧、機場及迪士尼行走。
香港的的士以首2公里為基本車費，以市區的士為例，其起錶價為15元港幣，新界的士為12.5元，大嶼山的士則為12元。然後每200米或每分鐘等候時間，按的士種類加收1.2至1.4元港幣。
[編輯] 澳門
澳門黃的
澳門黃的
澳門的士分為黑色的，以行走裏數收費；和黃色的電召計程車，收費跟黑色計程車一樣。收費為首1500米為11元澳門幣，其後每180米1元澳門幣。前往氹仔及路環另收附加費。黑色的士分為4座位、5座位和6座位。
[編輯] 新加坡
新加坡名為「德士」，新加坡共有6家德士公司，分別是：康福Comfort 、城市City Cab、SMRT、Trans-Cab、捷達Premier Taxis、Smart Cab。其中SMRT更有提供高級德士服務，分別是賓士E-Class和倫敦德士，不過收費比起一般德士高出許多。新加坡的一般德士和香港的計程車車款相同為豐田皇冠。新加坡德士計費方式為(皆以坡幣計算)，首1公里$2.4元，之後每0.25公里(第1.01-10.0公里)/0.2公里(第10.01公里或以後)收$0.1元；每30秒等候也收$0.1元；若用電話叫車要加$3.2元(馬上到)或$5.2元(預約時間)。新加坡德士車費超過$15元可以刷卡 (但要收3%作為附加費)。新加坡德士在午夜乘車車資為錶上的金額之1.5倍，另外假日和前夕車費也加$1元；若自樟宜機場出發也要加$3到$5元不等的金額。新加坡對私家車數量管制嚴格，除了擁車條件高之外，若是在尖峰時刻進入市區(CBD)都要收費，德士也不例外。新加坡招車最好站在Taxi Stand，除非是午夜才有可能隨便招車。
* 註：$1.0坡幣=$5.0港幣
[編輯] 台灣
臺北市計程車
臺北市計程車
中華民國禁止標誌禁7：禁止空計程車進入
中華民國禁止標誌禁7：禁止空計程車進入
臺灣通常以「計程車」稱之。臺灣計程車之車身一律漆為黃色，並懸掛白底紅字車牌，車頂置「TAXI」或「出租汽車」燈箱。此外，計程車在台灣亦被民眾稱為小黃。
台灣計程車大部份採「靠行制度」，計程車司機需考到職業小型車的駕駛執照後，再考取計程車執業登記證，透過車行仲介取得車輛才可執業。在一定條件且政府有開放時，才可申請成為「個人車行」。因為採靠行制度，計程車司機常被車行剝削，導致種種不公平現象產生，甚至發生過不同車行或車隊間的計程車司機鬥毆的事件。政府在數年前，開放了成立計程車合作社，以改善靠行制度的弊端。另外在臺北都會區，也盛行電話叫車，以車隊的模式經營叫車中心，由無線電或衛星定位方式派遣計程車，既便利乘客，也讓計程車司機的收入增加。
台灣計程車在路邊相當容易攔截，由於空車率頗高，許多計程車司機會主動靠邊詢問是否要坐車。台灣的消費者有挑好車的習慣，外觀內裝乾淨整潔會相較受到消費者個青睞。
至於臺北陽明山區也有計程車司機在山下詢問正在等公車的民眾是否願意多人包一臺車，以每人固定收費方式上山。
目前大臺北地區有300輛台灣大車隊計程車正在試辦使用悠遊卡付費功能，在貼有悠遊卡標誌的計程車上，可使用悠遊卡進行交易。
[編輯] 計程收費
臺灣絕大多數計程車以里程數計費，為臺北為例，首1.5公里收新台幣70元(但臺中市、高雄市為85元)，此外，每0.3公里增收新臺幣5元；至於停車時間(時速5公里以下)每2分鐘5元。
晚上11時至翌晨6時期間採夜間加成收費，首1.25公里收70元，隨後每0.25公里收5元，停車時間則是縮短為每1分40秒收5元。春節期間約6至8天全天以夜間模式收費，並於夜間照錶再加收20元(臺北市區)。
臺灣其他各城市收價方式大致相同，亦多較臺北市低廉。但一般來說，自機場或車站出發的計程車，會增收一筆額外費用，約新臺幣10元(行李箱服務費)。另外，由於從市區前往機場的計程車，若不具排班資格，回程不得載客，以致於可能加收跳錶50%的車資。少數地區則以喊價決定價格，例如台東縣、基隆市。
[編輯] 北京
北京市稱作出租車，﹝士收費按車型計算。在北京，的士稱作「的」(讀若『滴』)，招呼的士叫做「打的」，的士司機稱為「的哥」或「的姐」，計費收據叫「的票」。有私家車也在馬路上非法攬客，稱為「黑的」。 2005年北京的士開始了新一輪的更新換代，淘汰了使用了十多年的紅色天津夏利。車價基本統一為1.6元/公里，起價3公里10元。車身統一色調，為3條2色，車身主要為金色，車頂與包圍顏色一致，一般為藍色、綠色或紫色。車頂燈箱與車門上印有公司縮寫。規模較大的出租汽車公司有：銀建、北汽、首汽等。自從韓國現代汽車在北京設廠以後，的士主要採用現代伊蘭特和索納塔汽車，另外也有捷達、富康等車型。
[編輯] 上海
跟北京一樣稱作出租車，同樣地，搭乘的士，在上海叫做「打的」。(注：「打的」這種說法來自北京，在上海話中的士被稱為"差頭")
上海的士是城市公共運輸的重要組成部分。目前全市有的士企業261家，從業人員近10萬人，出租汽車近43000輛，旅遊包車和租賃車等8000多輛。全行業日均客運量近300萬人次，約占上海客運總量的24％。
上海的的士服務由多間計程車公司營辦，一般以四家較大公司的車輛為主：大眾 強生 巴士和友誼。各公司都提供電話預定車輛上門服務，以裏數為車費計算單位。近來上海出現7座，客貨兩用等特種計程車，方便多人出行或大量購物。小型的士起租價為11元，中型的士起租價為16元。起租里程都是3公里，超起租里程單價每公里2.1元。客貨等特種計程車按照車型不等而價格不一。
[編輯] 廣州
主條目：廣州計程車
廣州市民稱作計程車、乘坐的士為「打的」、的士司機稱為「的哥」。
[編輯] 南韓
南韓的的士分為模範的士及一般的士，此外亦有大型的士。一般的士為銀色車身，收費較廉宜，首2公里起錶價為1900韓圓，此後每168米或每41秒加收100韓圓，夜間另收附加費。模範的士為黑色車身，收費較昂貴，首3公里起錶價為4500韓圓，此後每144米或每35秒加收200韓圓，夜間不收附加費。
韓國的一般的士實施共乘制度，司機會按前往目的地的路線決定是否等候另一個客人。
模範的士司機懂基本英語，不懂韓語旅客若不介意金錢可選乘模範的士。
一個警察被一台汽車在公路上拖行
警察主要任務是依法維持公共秩序、保護社會安寧、促進人民福利。是政府中的公務員。部分國家的警察實行類似於軍隊軍銜制度的警銜制。英國倫敦是第一個創立現代警察制度以維持治安的城市。天津是在中國第一個創立警察的城市（於清朝）。
目錄
[隱藏]
* 1 各國及地區警察管理機構
o 1.1 中華民國
o 1.2 中華人民共和國
+ 1.2.1 香港特別行政區
o 1.3 日本
* 2 近代警察制度的建立
* 3 參見
[編輯] 各國及地區警察管理機構
[編輯] 中華民國
中華民國警察分局─中正第一分局
中華民國警察分局─中正第一分局
中華民國的警察主管機關是內政部警政署。各縣市設有警察局。各鄉鎮市區設有警察分局及地方性的派出所、分駐所，另外設有各類專門警察（如刑事警察、鐵路警察、外事警察、捷運警察、行政警察、高鐵警察......等），另外海岸巡防署亦是屬於警政機構，負責海岸巡防，目前約有警察七萬名。
[編輯] 中華人民共和國
中華人民共和國的警察主管機關通常意義上是中華人民共和國公安部，現任部長為周永康總警監;但中國的警察機關除了公安部還有中華人民共和國國家安全部、中華人民共和國司法部；此外最高人民法院、最高人民檢察院也轄有司法警察，另尚有中華人民共和國鐵道部下屬的鐵路乘警。各省、自治區、直轄市設有公安廳（局）、國家安全廳（局）、司法廳（局），各市、縣、自治縣、市轄區設有公安局，設區的市在各區設分局，各鄉鎮及城市各街道設有派出所。中國警察的管理體製為統一領導，分級管理，條（上下級公安機關）塊（同級黨委及政府）結合，以塊為主。中國目前有警察約170萬人。
[編輯] 香港特別行政區
香港特別行政區的警察主管機關是香港警務處，警務處內有四萬多名警員，並劃分為多個地區警區（如觀塘警區）及特殊警區（如鐵路警區）。
[編輯] 日本
一輛執勤中的日本警車
一輛執勤中的日本警車
日本的警察主管機關為內閣府國家公安委員會下之警察廳，在東北、關東、中部、近畿、中國、九州、四國設有「管區警察局」。各地方政府則設置「警察本部」，東京都設「警視廳」。
[編輯] 近代警察制度的建立
追溯現代警察的創設，法國在1667年路易十四時期，就建立警察制度；而英國則緣於1829年初，由當時的內政部長皮爾爵士（Robert Peel）所提警察法案（Police Bill），經英國議會通過，並於6月26日得到英王批准後，經過數月的籌備，一群頭戴皮帽，身穿藏青色燕尾服上衣，同色褲子，腳穿皮鞋打皮綁腿的執勤人員，終於在9月29日出現於倫敦街道上這就是現代型警察的第一次出現。天津警察是以英國警察為原型，在中國第一個出現警察的城市。
罕見鹿打拳片段
Two Deers Fight In Woods - Watch more free videos
被人們稱為鹿的動物在不同地區可能是不同的種類，這類動物在人們的觀念中容易於其他偶蹄目動物（如豬、牛）等區分。在生物分類學鹿類動物上包括反芻亞目鹿上科的麝科和鹿科，有時也包括與鹿上科親緣較近的鼷鹿上科的鼷鹿科動物。具體的科屬分類系統如下：
反芻亞目 Ruminantia
鼷鹿上科 Traguloidea
鼷鹿科 Tragulidae
鹿上科 Cervoidea
麝科 Moschidae
麝屬 Moschus
鹿科 Cervidae
獐亞科 Hydropotinae
獐屬 Hydropotes
鹿亞科 Cervinae
麂族 Muntiacini
毛冠鹿屬 Elaphodus
麂屬 Muntiacus
鹿族 Cervini
軸鹿屬 Axis
鹿屬 Cervus
麋鹿屬 Elaphurus
美洲鹿亞科 Odocoileinae
狍族 Capreolini
狍屬 Capreolus
駝鹿族 Alces
駝鹿屬 Alces
美洲鹿族 Odocoileini
馴鹿屬 Rangifer
一次過點三萬粒火柴頭的威力
火柴是利用某些物質的劇烈氧化還原反應產生高溫而發火燃燒的一種取火工具。由火柴頭(發火介質)和火柴梗（燃燒介質）組成。火柴頭主要包含氧化劑和還原劑。普遍的,火柴頭含有亞磷.
[編輯] 原理
在一小根細木棍或其他相當結實的易燃材料的一端粘附上易燃混合物，經摩擦會發火併因此點燃。典型的火柴是由木質短棒或者紙質短棒的一端附著磷而成，附著磷的一端叫做火柴頭，火柴頭摩擦合適的表面時，由於摩擦生熱，磷的燃燒點低，所以火柴頭開始燃燒，進而燃燒短棒，從而點火。目前主要有兩種火柴：安全火柴和萬能火柴。安全火柴只有當火柴頭摩擦特別準備的表面時才會點火；而萬能火柴可以在任意粗糙表面點火。
[編輯] 歷史
點燃時
點燃時
點燃時
點燃時
中國很早就出現了火柴。南北朝時期，將硫磺沾在小木棒上，藉助於火種或火刀火石，能很方便地把陰火引發為陽火。這可視為最原始的火柴。
950年前後，陶穀在《清異錄》一書中提到，夜裡有急事而又要花不少時間做燈。有一位聰明人用松木條浸染硫磺，貯存起來備用。與火一接觸，就會燃燒起來。可得小火焰如同谷穗。這種神奇之物，當時稱為『引光奴』。後來，它成為商品時，便更名為『火寸條』。
歐洲最早的火柴也是用硫磺製成的，許多研究者認為，這項發明很可能是由歐洲旅遊者直接從中國帶回的[來源請求]。1816年，法國巴黎的F.德魯森製成了黃磷火柴，1828 年，英國倫敦的S. 瓊斯製成了普魯米辛火柴，接著巴黎人G. E. 梅凱爾和奧地利人J.西格爾等人發明了無磷火柴。為了增加火柴的穩定性和易燃性，法國人C.索利亞利用白磷和黃磷作為配方，於1831年革新了火柴配方的設計。1845年，化學家A. 施勒特爾發明了安全火柴，採用紅磷作為火柴頭。19世紀末，發現利用白磷做火柴的工廠工人，易罹患一種磷毒性頜疽症的疾病，1898年，法國政府火柴專賣公司提出了三硫化二磷用於火柴製作的專利後，白磷火柴被視為一種違法的產品。
1830年，法國的索利亞和德國的坎默洛對火柴進行了革新，用黃磷、硫磺和氯化鉀混合原料製成現代的火柴。二十世紀初，現代火柴傳入中國，被稱為洋火、番火等。例如臺灣話今日仍稱「番仔火」。
現代，由於現代工具的發展，很多人使用打火機而隨著淘汰了火柴的使用。今日，在超市中更容易買到打火機而不是火柴。
取自"http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E7%81%AB%E6%9F%B4&variant=zh-tw"
2個分類: 有未列明來源語句的條目 | 工具
日本仔又一瘋癜之作——火箭人
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火箭推進是一種精密的結構，它的原理主要是力學、熱力學，以及其它有關科學之運用，諸如電學等。火箭跟一般的飛機主要的不同點在於：飛機只能在大氣層內飛翔，但是火箭可以在外太空工作，因為它不需要利用空氣便能夠燃燒推進。
火箭推力的獲得，乃由高速噴出物反作用而生成。其原理與花園中用橡皮管噴水時，橡皮管會向後退，以及槍向后座的原理一樣。
火箭的燃料經過燃燒室燃燒以後，會產生高溫高壓的氣體，之後再經過一個噴嘴而加速，併排氣到外界。這些氣體便是推動火箭的原動力。
火箭依不同種類發動機可分為：
* 化學火箭發動機
o 固態火箭發動機
o 液態火箭發動機
o 混合式火箭發動機
* 原子能火箭發動機
* 電力火箭發動機
* 離子發動機
固態火箭跟液態火箭便是現今比較常用的火箭。此外，還有混合火箭---就是用固體的燃料而用液體的氧化劑。另外，值得一提的是，現今運載火箭大多包含了液態火箭跟固態火箭，也就是說，一個火箭可能第一節是固態的而第二節卻是液態的。
火箭發動機
火箭發動機
[編輯] 歷史
[編輯] 起源
中國人在公元前300年就已發明了火箭，但是是作為像煙花一樣娛樂品。 11世紀之後發展為軍用。[來源請求] 北宋初年，曾用以製作火箭、火球等。後來又出現了帶爆炸性的霹靂炮。南宋時期更出現了鐵火炮、突火槍、火銃等新式武器。這些武器威力巨大，被廣泛使用在對蒙戰爭中。Template:Tw 1150年 宋朝 南宋高宗紹興二十年 軍隊發明了全世界上第一支火箭. 他們將裝滿火葯的竹管綁放箭上, 加上一條引信. 接著在靠近箭羽部份綁上一小塊鐵. 讓箭簇傾斜以便射得更遠.Template:Tw
18世紀末印度人用火箭抵抗英國，從此傳入歐洲。
附有燃燒物的箭矢也被稱為火箭。在赤壁之戰時這種火箭已經被廣泛使用。[來源請求]
[編輯] 現代火箭
現代火箭誕生自羅伯特‧高達德將 超音速de Laval噴嘴裝上液態燃料火箭引擎燃燒室。這種噴嘴將燃燒室中的熱氣體轉成較冷的極超音速噴射氣體，使推進力增加超過兩倍且巨幅地增加了效率；在此之前，早期的火箭因為熱能隨氣體排放被浪費掉了而相當的沒效率。在1920年，高達德出版了《A Method Of Reaching Exreme Altitudes》，這是在齊奧爾科夫斯基之後第一本認真談論使用火箭在太空旅行的著作。這本書引起了全世界的注意，也同時獲得讚賞與嘲笑，特別是在認為火箭理論上可以到達月球的方面。紐約時報的社論甚至指控高達德欺騙世人，認為火箭在太空中不可能運作。
在1923年，赫爾曼·奧伯特(1894-1989)在慕尼黑大學拒絕了他的博士論文後，將其一個版本出版成為《飛向行星太空的火箭》(德文：Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen)
在1926年，羅伯特‧高達德於美國麻塞諸塞州奧本鎮發射了世界第一枚液態燃料火箭。
在1920年代之間，美國、奧地利、英國、捷克、斯洛伐克、法國、義大利、德國及俄國相繼出現研究火箭的組織。1920年代中期，德國科學家開始實驗能到達高空及長距離的液態推進火箭。一群業餘火箭工程師在1927年組成德國火箭學會（德文：VfR），而在1931年發射了一枚液態推進火箭（使用[[氧|氧氣]及汽油）
從1931年自1937年為止，最大規模的火箭引擎設計發生在列寧格勒的氣體動力實驗室。在充足的資金與良好的人員經營下，超過100枚實驗性火箭在Valentin Glushko的領導下被製造出來。這項工程包括了再生冷卻、自燃點火以及包括旋轉及雙推進混合設計（swirling and bi-propellant mixing injectors）的噴油器。然而，這項工程卻由於1938年史達林大清洗使Glushko被逮捕而遭到縮減。同時間奧地利教授Eugen Sänger也進行了相似但較小規模的工作。
在1932年，德國國防軍(1935年後改稱德國防衛軍) 開始對火箭技術感興趣。由於凡爾賽條約火炮禁令限制德國取得長程武器，當德國防衛軍看到了使用火箭做為長程火炮的可能性後，一開始資助了德國火箭學會，但發現他們的目標純粹只限於科學後，便創建了屬於防衛軍所有、以赫爾曼·奧伯特為領導的研究團隊。在軍隊領導人的命令下，當時有強烈抱負理想的年輕火箭科學家馮‧布朗與兩位前火箭學會的成員加入了軍隊，發展納粹德國用於二次大戰長程武器，尤其是後來惡名朝彰的V2火箭（一開始稱為A4）的前身A系列火箭。
1943開始，V2火箭開始製造。V2火箭擁有350公里的作戰距離以及搭載1000公斤阿瑪圖炸藥彈頭。此載具與大部份現代火箭只有極少數不同，有渦輪幫浦、慣性導引裝置及其它許多特性。雖然它們無法被攔截，但它們的導引系統設計及單傳統彈頭意味了V2火箭無法準確地描準軍事目標。數以千計的V2火箭射向盟軍國，其中大部份是英國，以及比利時與法國，在發射作戰結束前，共有2,754人在英國因而死亡，還有6,523人受傷。雖然V2火箭並沒有明顯地影響戰爭的發展，但它展示了導引火箭作為武器的潛力。 當時, 英國倫敦受到攻擊, 人心惶惶. 英國政府馬上派人研究.發現火箭攻擊的分佈為 泊松分佈(Poisson Distribution),也就是機率分佈(random distribution).
二戰結束時，俄國、英國及美國軍事及科學人員競相從佩內明德的德國火箭計劃獲取火箭技術及訓練有素的人員。俄國與英國獲得了一些成果，但美國卻從中獲益最多。美國獲得了大批德國火箭科學家（其中大部份為納粹黨員，包括馮‧布朗在內），將他們帶回美國做為迴紋針行動中一部份成員。原本設計來攻擊於英國的相同火箭被這群科學家們用做發展新技術的載具。V2火箭演變成美國紅石火箭(Redstone rocket)，用於早期太空任務。
戰後，火箭被用做研究高海拔環境，無線電遙測溫度及氣壓、偵測宇宙射線及其它研究。這些研究在馮‧布朗及其它人之下持續進行。
另外一方面，蘇聯的火箭研究在科羅廖夫的領導下進行中。從來自德國技術人員的協助，V2火箭被複製及改進成為R-1、R-2及R-5飛彈。原德國的設計在1940晚期被放棄，而這些德國工作人員被遣送回國。由Glushko建造的新系列引擎及基於Aleksei Isaev的發明形成了最初的洲際飛彈R-7。R-7發射了第一顆衛星、第一個太空人及第一個月球探測器及行星際探測器，直到今天還在使用。這些事件吸引了高層政治人物的注意力，投注更多經費於研究中。
當大眾了解到火箭變成核子武器的發射平臺，而搭載這些武器的火箭載具基本上在發射後就無法防禦後，火箭以洲際飛彈的形式在軍事上變得極端重要。
由於冷戰，1960年代形成了火箭科技極速發展的時代，包括蘇聯（東方號、聯合號、質子號）及美國（X-20飛行器、雙子星號），以及其他國家的研究如英國、日本、澳大利亞等等。最終導致了60年代末期的土星5號載人登陸月球，使紐約時報收回以前認為太空任務不可能成功的社論。
[編輯] 現在發展
[編輯] 法規
國際法規定，發射載具的擁有者的國籍決定了那個國家必須為任何造成的損害負責。因此有些國家要求火箭製造者及發射者遵循特定法令去補償及保護人員及財產可能受到的影響。
在美國，任何非歸類為業餘，也非政府相關的火箭必須由位於華聖頓特區的美國聯邦航空局商業太空運輸辦公室(FAA/AST)批准。
[編輯] 火箭意外
由於所有的火箭燃料都具有強大的化學能量（單位重量的能量比炸藥多，但比汽油少），因此有可能發生意外。雖然一般對於火箭安全都會特別注意，使因火箭意外喪生或受傷的人數通常比較少，但這樣的記錄也稱不上完美。
[編輯] 世界各國發射紀錄
成功率順位 國名 發射次數 失敗數 成功率
1 俄羅斯 1261 49 96.1%
2 歐洲聯盟 164 11 93.3%
3 美利堅合衆國 510 35 93.1%
4 中華人民共和國 81 8 90.1%
5 日本 50 5 90%
6 印度 19 6 68.4%
7 以色列 6 2 66.7%
熊人打boxing
Cub Boxing - Watch more free videos
Boxing (or pugilism) is a combat sport of English origin in which two participants of similar weight fight each other with their fists in a series of one to three-minute intervals called rounds. Victory is achieved if the opponent is knocked down and unable to get up before the referee counts to ten (a Knockout, or KO) or if the opponent is deemed too injured to continue (a Technical Knockout, or TKO). If there is no stoppage of the fight before an agreed number of rounds, a winner is determined either by the referee's decision or by judges' scorecards.
In some countries with their own fighting sports, the sport is referred to as "English Boxing" (e.g. in France to contrast with French Boxing).
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Origins
o 1.1 Pugilism
o 1.2 Ancient Boxing outside Europe
o 1.3 London Prize Ring rules (1743)
o 1.4 Marquess of Queensberry rules (1867)
* 2 Rules
* 3 Professional vs. amateur boxing
o 3.1 Amateur boxing
o 3.2 Professional boxing
* 4 Boxing Style Terminology
o 4.1 Out-fighter
o 4.2 Boxer-Puncher
o 4.3 Brawler/Slugger
o 4.4 In-fighter
o 4.5 Bob-and-Weave Fighter
o 4.6 Puncher
o 4.7 Style matchups
* 5 Equipment
* 6 Technique
o 6.1 Stance
o 6.2 Punches
o 6.3 Defense
+ 6.3.1 Guards
o 6.4 Ring generalship
o 6.5 Less common strategies
* 7 Medical concerns
o 7.1 Fatalities versus brain injury
* 8 Boxing Hall of Fame
* 9 Governing and sanctioning bodies
* 10 See also
* 11 References
* 12 External links
o 12.1 Boxing associations
[edit] Origins
Youths boxing in a Minoan fresco on the Greek island of Santorini
Youths boxing in a Minoan fresco on the Greek island of Santorini
Fist-fighting for sport probably arose independently in various prehistoric cultures. [13] Archaeological evidence indicates that Berbers and Egyptians may have practiced the sport as early as 3000 BC, and boxing is depicted in Sumerian relief carvings from the third millennium BC. The earliest evidence for boxing in the Mediterranean can be found in the Minoan civilization (c. 1500 BC). [14]
[edit] Pugilism
Main article: Ancient Greek Boxing
The ancient Greeks, and later the ancient Romans, had a sport called pugilism (a term now often used for boxing) which resembled boxing. It contrasted with ancient Greek wrestling in that it was based on the use of fists.
Unlike modern boxing, there were no weight categories, fights were not separated into rounds, and the fight had no time limit, ending at a knockout, or at a fighter abandoning the fight, or sometimes (though rarely) at the death of one of the fighters. Instead of gloves, fighters wrapped their hands in strips of hardened leather which protected the fist and caused unpleasant injuries for the opponent. Long fights were decided by an alternation of free punches, with the first to strike a free punch being decided by tossing a coin.
According to the Iliad, Mycenaean warriors included boxing among their competitions honoring the fallen, though it is possible that the Homeric epics reflect later Greek culture. Another Greek legend holds that the heroic ruler Theseus, said to have lived around the 9th century BC, invented a form of boxing in which two men sat face to face and beat each other with their fists until one of them was killed. In time, the boxers began to fight while standing and wearing gloves (with spikes) and wrappings on their arms below the elbows, although otherwise they competed naked.
Boxing was first accepted as an Olympic sport (the ancient Greeks called it Pygme/ Pygmachia) in 688 BC. Participants trained on punching bags (called a korykos). Fighters wore leather straps (called himantes) over their hands, wrists, and sometimes breast, to protect them from injury. The straps left their fingers free.
In ancient Rome, fighters were usually criminals and slaves who hoped to become champions and gain their freedom; however, free men also fought. Eventually, fist fighting became so popular that even aristocrats started fighting, but the practice was eventually banned by Caesar Augustus. In 393 A.D., the Olympics were banned by the Christian emperor Theodosius, and in 500 A.D., boxing was banned altogether by Theodoric the Great. [1]
[edit] Ancient Boxing outside Europe
In China in the Zhou Dynasty (12th Century B.C.), Jiao li, a form of wrestling that included boxing, was recorded in the Classic of Rites.[2] This combat system included techniques such as strikes, throws, joint manipulation, and pressure point attacks.
Forms of boxing are mentioned in early Buddhist sources. In the Lotus Sutra (Chapter 14), Gautama Buddha (563-483 BC) refers to boxing while speaking to Manjusri. Another early Buddhist sutra Hongyo-kyo describes a boxing contest between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince Nanda and his cousin Devadatta.[3] The boxing martial art of Vajra Mushti was described in the Buddharata Sutra, written in the 5th century,[4] though it was used by the Hindu Kshatriya caste centuries earlier.[3]
[edit] London Prize Ring rules (1743)
Main article: London Prize Ring rules
The beginnings of the modern right cross demonstrated in Edmund Price's The Science of Self Defense: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling, 1867
The beginnings of the modern right cross demonstrated in Edmund Price's The Science of Self Defense: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling, 1867
Records of Classical boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the Roman Empire. However, there are detailed records of various fist-fighting sports that were maintained in different cities and provinces of Italy between the 12th and 17th centuries. The sport would later resurface in England during the early 18th century in the form of bare-knuckle boxing sometimes referred to as prizefighting. The first documented account of a bare-knuckle fight in England appeared in 1681 in the London Protestant Mercury, and the first English bare-knuckle champion was James Figg in 1719.[5] This is also the time when the word "boxing" first came to be used.
Early fighting had no written rules. There were no weight divisions or round limits, and no referee. The first boxing rules, called the London Prize Ring rules, were introduced by heavyweight champion Jack Broughton in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths sometimes occurred.[6] Under these rules, if a man went down and could not continue after a count of 30 seconds, the fight was over. Hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were prohibited. Broughton also invented, and encouraged the use of "mufflers" a form of padded gloves, which were used in training and exhibitions. The first 'boxing paper' was published in the late 18th century by successful Birmingham boxer 'William Futrell' who remained undefeated until his one hour and seventeen minute fight at Smitham Bottom, Croydon, on July 9, 1788 against a much younger "Gentleman" John Jackson which was attended by the Prince of Wales.
Although bare-knuckle fighting was in almost every aspect far more brutal than modern boxing, it did allow the fighters a single advantage not enjoyed by today's boxers: The London Prize Rules permitted the fighter to drop to one knee to begin a 30-second count at any time. Thus a fighter realizing he was in trouble had an opportunity to recover. Intentionally going down in modern boxing will cause the recovering fighter to lose points in the scoring system.
In 1838, the London Prize Ring rules were expanded in detail. Later revised in 1853, they stipulated the following:[7]
* Fights occurred in a 24-foot-square ring surrounded by ropes.
* If a fighter was knocked down, he had to rise within 30 seconds under his own power to be allowed to continue.
* Biting, headbutting and hitting below the belt were declared fouls
Through the late nineteenth century, boxing or prizefighting was primarily a sport of dubious legitimacy. Outlawed in England and much of the United States, prizefights were often held at gambling venues and broken up by police. Brawling and wrestling tactics continued, and riots at prizefights were common occurrences. Still, throughout this period, there arose some notable bareknuckle champions who developed fairly sophisticated fighting tactics.
[edit] Marquess of Queensberry rules (1867)
In 1867, the Marquess of Queensberry rules were drafted by John Chambers for amateur championships held at Lillie Bridge in London for Lightweights, Middleweights and Heavyweights. The rules were published under the patronage of the Marquess of Queensberry, whose name has always been associated with them.
There were twelve rules in all, and they specified that fights should be "a fair stand-up boxing match" in a 24-foot-square ring. Rounds were three minutes long with one minute rest intervals between rounds. Each fighter was given a ten-second count if he was knocked down and wrestling was banned.
The introduction of gloves of "fair-size" also changed the nature of the bouts. An average pair of boxing gloves resembles a bloated pair of mittens and are laced up around the wrists. Gloves protected fighters from both facial and hand injuries, their considerable size and weight making knock-out victories more difficult to achieve.[8] The gloves could also be used to block an opponents blows. As a result of their introduction, bouts became longer and more strategic with greater importance attached to defensive maneuvers such as slipping, bobbing, countering and angling. Because less defensive emphasis was placed on the use of the forearms and more on the gloves, the classical forearms outwards, torso leaning back stance of the bareknuckle boxer was modified to more modern stance in which the torso is tilted forward and the hands are held closer to the face.
The English case of R v. Coney in 1882 found that a bare-knuckle fight was an assault occasioning actual bodily harm, despite the consent of the participants. This marked the end of widespread public bare-knuckle contests in England.
The first world heavyweight champion under the Queensberry Rules was "Gentleman Jim" Corbett, who defeated John L. Sullivan in 1892 at the Pelican Athletic Club in New Orleans.[9]
Throughout the early twentieth century, boxing struggled to achieve legitimacy, through the influence of promoters like Tex Rickard and the popularity of great champions from John L. Sullivan to Jack Dempsey. Shortly after this era, boxing commissions and other sanctioning bodies were established to regulate the sport and establish universally recognized champions.
Further information: Professional boxing
[edit] Rules
The Marquess of Queensbury rules have been the general rules governing modern boxing since their publication in 1867.
A boxing match typically consists of a predetermined number of three-minute rounds, anywhere from three for an Olympic bout to up to fifteen for a professional fight. A minute is typically spent between each round with the fighters in their assigned corners receiving advice and attention from their coach and staff. The fight is controlled by a referee who works within the ring to judge and control the conduct of the fighters, rule on their ability to fight safely, count knocked-down fighters, and rule on fouls. Up to three judges are typically present at ringside to score the bout and assign points to the boxers, based on punches that connect, defense and knockdowns. Each fighter has an assigned corner of the ring, where his or her coach, as well as one or more "seconds" may administer to the fighter at the beginning of the fight and between rounds. Each boxer enters into the ring from their assigned corners at the beginning of each round and must cease fighting and return to their corner at the signaled end of each round.
A bout in which the predetermined number of rounds passes is decided by the judges. The fighter with the higher score at the end of the fight is ruled the winner. With three judges, unanimous and split decisions are possible, as are draws. A boxer may win the bout before a decision is reached through a knockout. If a fighter is knocked down during the fight, determined by whether the boxer touches the canvas floor of the ring with any part of their body other than the feet, the referee begins counting until the fighter returns to his or her feet and can continue. Should the referee count to ten, then the knocked-down boxer is ruled "knocked out" (whether he or she is unconscious or not) and the other boxer is ruled the winner by knockout (KO). A "technical knockout" (TKO) is possible as well, and is ruled by the referee, fight doctor, or a fighter's corner if a fighter is unable to safely continue to fight, based upon injuries or being judged unable to effectively defend themselves. Many jurisdictions and sanctioning agencies also have a "three-knockdown rule", in which three knockdowns result in a TKO. A TKO is considered a knockout in a fighter's record. A "standing eight" count rule may also be in effect, in which the referee counts no higher than eight to a boxer who regains his or her footing after a knockdown, allowing the referee time to assess if the boxer is able to continue.
In general, boxers are prohibited from hitting below the belt, holding, tripping, pushing, biting, spitting or wrestling. They also are prohibited from kicking, head-butting, or hitting with any part of the arm other than the knuckles of a closed fist (including hitting with the elbow, shoulder or forearm, as well as with open gloves, the wrist, the inside, back or side of the hand). They are prohibited as well from hitting the back, back of the neck or head (called a "rabbit-punch") or the kidneys. They are prohibited from holding the ropes for support when punching, holding an opponent while punching, or ducking below the belt of their opponent. If a "clinch", a defensive move in which a boxer wraps his or her opponents arms and holds on to create a pause, is broken by the referee, each fighter must take a full step back before punching again (alternatively, the referee may direct the fighters to "punch out" of the clinch). When a boxer is knocked-down, the other boxer must immediately cease fighting and move to the nearest neutral corner of the ring until the referee has either ruled a knockout or called for the fight to continue.
Violations of these rules may be ruled "fouls" by the referee, who may issue warnings, deduct points, or disqualify an offending boxer, causing an automatic loss, depending on the seriousness and intentionality of the foul. An intentional foul that causes injury that prevents a fight from continuing usually causes the boxer who committed it to be disqualified. A fighter who suffers an accidental low-blow may be given up to five minutes to recover, after which they may be ruled knocked out if they are unable to continue. Accidental fouls that cause injury ending a bout may lead to a "no decision" result, or else cause the fight to go to a decision if enough rounds (typically four or more, or at least three in a four-round fight) have passed.
[edit] Professional vs. amateur boxing
Throughout the 17th through 19th centuries, boxing bouts were motivated by money, as the fighters competed for prizes, promoters controlled the gate, and spectators bet on the result. The modern Olympic movement revived interest in amateur sports, and amateur boxing became an Olympic sport in 1908. In their current form, Olympic and other amateur bouts are typically limited to three or four rounds, scoring is computed by points based on the number of clean blows landed, regardless of impact, and fighters wear protective headgear, reducing the number of injuries, knockdowns, and knockouts. Professional boxing remains by far the most popular form of the sport globally, though amateur boxing is dominant in Cuba and some former Soviet republics. For most fighters, an amateur career, especially at the Olympics, serves to develop skills and gain experience in preparation for a professional career.
[edit] Amateur boxing
Headgear is mandatory in amateur boxing
Headgear is mandatory in amateur boxing
Main article: Amateur boxing
Amateur boxing may be found at the collegiate level, at the Olympic Games and Commonwealth Games, and in many other venues sanctioned by amateur boxing associations. Amateur boxing has a point scoring system that measures the number of clean blows landed rather than physical damage. Bouts consist of four rounds of two minutes in the Olympic and Commonwealth Games, and three rounds of two minutes in a national ABA (Amateur Boxing Association) bout, each with a one-minute interval between rounds.
Competitors wear protective headgear and gloves with a white strip across the knuckle. A punch is considered a scoring punch only when the boxers connect with the white portion of the gloves. Each punch that lands on the head or torso is awarded a point. A referee monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows (a belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches - any boxer repeatedly landing "low blows" (below the belt) is disqualified). Referees also ensure that the boxers don't use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging (if this occurs, the referee separates the opponents and orders them to continue boxing. Repeated holding can result in a boxer being penalized, or ultimately, disqualified). Referees will stop the bout if a boxer is seriously injured, if one boxer is significantly dominating the other or if the score is severely imbalanced.[10] Amateur bouts which end this way may be noted as "RSC" (referee stopped contest) with notations for an outclassed opponent (RSCO), outscored opponent (RSCOS), injury (RSCI) or head injury (RSCH).
[edit] Professional boxing
Main article: Professional boxing
Professional bouts are usually much longer than amateur bouts, typically ranging from ten to twelve rounds, though four round fights are common for less experienced fighters or club fighters, there are some two[15] and three rounds professional bouts[16], especially in Australia. Through the early twentieth century, it was common for fights to have unlimited rounds, ending only when one fighter quit or the fight was stopped by police. In the 1910s and 1920s, a fifteen-round limit gradually became the norm, benefiting high-energy fighters like Jack Dempsey. Fifteen rounds remained the internationally recognized limit for championship fights for most of the twentieth century, until the late 1980s, when championship bouts were shortened to twelve rounds to improve safety.
Headgear is not permitted in professional bouts, and boxers are generally allowed to take much more punishment before a fight is halted. At any time, however, the referee may stop the contest if he believes that one participant cannot defend himself due to injury. In that case, the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win. A technical knockout would also be awarded if a fighter lands a punch that opens a cut on the opponent, and the opponent is later deemed not fit to continue by a doctor because of the cut. For this reason, fighters often employ cutmen, whose job is to treat cuts between rounds so that the boxer is able to continue despite the cut. If a boxer simply quits fighting, or if his corner stops the fight, then the winning boxer is also awarded a technical knockout victory. In contrast with amateur boxing, professional male boxers have to be bare chested.[11]
[edit] Boxing Style Terminology
In boxing, no two fighters' styles are identical. A boxer's style is evolved as he applies what he has been taught or picked up in practice, and performs it in such a way as to suit himself. Nonetheless, many terms are used which broadly describe a boxer's style. Note that a boxer is not necessarily limited to being described by one of these terms. A fighter may be described as a boxer-puncher or may be skilled at both in-fighting and out-fighting, for example.
[edit] Out-fighter
Muhammad Ali
Muhammad Ali
A classic "boxer" (also known as an "out-fighter") seeks to maintain distance between himself and his opponent, fighting with faster, longer range punches, most notably the jab. Since they rely on weaker punches such as the jab, boxers tend to win by points decisions rather than by knockout, although some boxers (such as Lennox Lewis) have notable knockout records. Boxers attempt to control the fight by using their jab to keep their opponent at range, and using fast footwork to evade any opponent that closes in. They are often regarded as the best boxing strategists due to their ability to control the pace of the fight and lead their opponent, wearing him down gradually, and exhibiting more skill and finesse than a brawler.
Notable boxers include Muhammad Ali, Sugar Ray Robinson, Sugar Ray Leonard, Pernell Whitaker, Roy Jones Jr., Floyd Mayweather Jr., Lennox Lewis, Winky Wright, Larry Holmes, Hilario Zapata, Chris Eubank, Joe Calzaghe, Anthony Mundine, Montell Griffin, Jermaine Taylor, Cory Spinks and Oscar De La Hoya.
[edit] Boxer-Puncher
A boxer-puncher is an out-fighter who has heavy fire power in their punches. They use the same hit-and-move tactics of an out-fighter, but instead of winning by decision, they tend to wear you down before scoring the knockout. For a fighter who uses this style to be effective, they need to have good footwork, good stamina and endurance, good jabs and/or leads, and good speed and power.
Notable boxers include Muhammad Ali, Joe Louis, Roy Jones Jr., Sugar Ray Robinson, Sugar Ray Leonard, Floyd Mayweather Jr., Lennox Lewis, Larry Holmes, Anthony Mundine, Montell Griffin, Chris Eubank, Mikkel Kessler, Joe Calzaghe, Jermain Taylor , and Oscar De La Hoya.
[edit] Brawler/Slugger
A brawler is a fighter who generally lacks finesse in the ring, but often makes up for it by volume of sheer punching power. Many brawlers tend to lack mobility in the ring and have difficulty pursuing fighters who are fast on their feet. They prefer a more stable stance from which they may throw the harder, slower punches (such as hooks and uppercuts) and tend to ignore combination punching. They may also have a tendency to load up on their punches more (to pull back the arm before throwing the punch so as to have a greater distance to gather momentum over before the punch's impact). Their slowness and predictable punching patterns (single punches with obvious leads) often leaves them open for counterpunching. Some notable brawlers include George Foreman, Ricardo Mayorga, Samuel Peter, Rocky Marciano, and Manny Pacquiao.
[edit] In-fighter
In-fighters or swarmers stay close to an opponent, throwing intense flurries and combinations of hooks and uppercuts. A successful in-fighter often needs a good "chin" because this usually involves being hit with many jabs before they can maneuver inside where they are more effective. A fighter who operates best at close range is generally shorter and has less reach than his opponents and thus is most effective at a distance where the longer arms of his opponents' make punching awkward. However, several fighters tall for their division have been relatively adept at in-fighting as well as out-fighting, including Riddick Bowe and Bernard Hopkins.
Notable in-fighters include Shane Mosley, Mike Tyson, Jake LaMotta, Ricky Hatton, Jose Luis Castillo, Julio César Chávez, Joe Frazier, Roberto Duran, Rocky Marciano, Harry Greb, Jack Dempsey, Henry Armstrong, James Toney.
[edit] Bob-and-Weave Fighter
Many short in-fighters utilise their stature to their advantage, employing a bob-and-weave defense by bending at the waist to slip underneath or to the sides of incoming punches. Unlike blocking, causing an opponent to miss a punch disrupts his balance, permits forward movement past the opponents extended arm and keeps the hands free to counter. Some bob-and-weave fighters have been known for being notoriously hard to hit, a well-known example being Mike Tyson early in his career. Another example is Joe Frazier.
[edit] Puncher
The term 'puncher' refers to a fighter with a powerful punch, but is not a true descriptor of boxing style. Punchers are capable of knocking out their opponents with few punches if given the opportunity to land them cleanly, and in some cases, scoring a KO with only a single blow. Notable punchers include Jack Dempsey, Mike Tyson, George Foreman, Joe Louis, Lennox Lewis, Marvelous Marvin Hagler, Thomas Hearns, John Mugabi, Julian Jackson, Felix Trinidad, Earnie Shavers, Rocky Marciano, Joe Frazier, Roy Jones Jr., Nigel Benn, Naseem Hamed, Diego Corrales, Jose Luis Castillo, and Manny Pacquaio.
[edit] Style matchups
There is a generally accepted rule of thumb about the success each of these boxing styles has against the others. In general, an in-fighter has an advantage over a boxer, a puncher has an advantage over an in-fighter, and a boxer has an advantage over a puncher. Naturally, many other factors, such as the skill level and training of the combatants, determine the outcome of a fight, but the widely held belief in this relationship among the styles is embodied in the cliché amongst boxing fans and writers that "styles make fights".
Punchers tend to overcome swarmers or in-fighters because, in trying to get close to the slugger, the in-fighter will invariably have to walk straight into the guns of the much harder-hitting puncher, so, unless the former has a very good chin and the latter's stamina is poor, the brawler's superior power will carry the day. Two famous examples of this type of match-up are George Foreman defeating Joe Frazier and Mike Tyson knocking out Joe's son, Marvis Frazier (in just 30 seconds).
Although in-fighters struggle against heavy punchers, they typically enjoy more success against out-fighters or boxers. Out-fighters prefer a slower fight, with some distance between themselves and the opponent. The in-fighter tries to close that gap and unleash furious flurries. On the inside, the out-fighter loses a lot of his combat effectiveness, because he cannot throw the hard punches. The in-fighter is generally successful in this case, due to his intensity in advancing on his opponent and his good agility, which makes him difficult to evade. For example, the swarming Joe Frazier, though easily dominated by the slugger George Foreman, was able to create many more problems for the boxer Muhammad Ali in their three fights than Foreman could. Joe Louis, after retirement, admitted that he hated being crowded, and that a swarmer like Rocky Marciano would have caused him style problems even in his prime.
The boxer or out-fighter tends to be most successful against a brawler, whose slow speed (both hand and foot) and poor technique makes him an easy target to hit for the faster out-fighter. The out-fighter's main concern is to stay alert, as the brawler only needs to land one good punch to finish the fight. If the out-fighter can avoid those power punches, he can often wear the brawler down with fast jabs, tiring him out. If he is successful enough, he may even apply extra pressure in the later rounds in an attempt to achieve a knockout. Most classic boxers, such as Muhammad Ali and Lennox Lewis, enjoyed their best successes against sluggers.
[edit] Equipment
Since boxing involves forceful, repetitive punching, precautions must be taken to prevent damage to bones in the hand. Most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without hand/wrist wraps and gloves. Handwraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more force than if they did not utilize them. Gloves have been required in competition since the late nineteenth century, though modern boxing gloves are much heavier than those worn by early twentieth-century fighters. Prior to a bout, both boxers agree upon the weight of gloves to be used in the bout, with the understanding that lighter gloves allow heavy punchers to inflict more damage. The brand of gloves can also affect the impact of punches, so this too is usually stipulated before a bout.
Boxers practice their skills on two basic types of punching bags. A small, tear-drop-shaped "speed bag" is used to hone reflexes and repetitive punching skills, while a large cylindrical "heavy bag", filled with sand or a synthetic substitute, is used to practice power punching and body blows. In addition to these distinctive pieces of equipment, boxers also utilize more general use training equipment to build strength, speed, and agility. Common training equipment includes free weights, rowing machines, jump rope, and medicine balls.
Headgear, required in amateur boxing and used by professionals when sparring, protects against cuts, scrapes, and swelling. It does not protect very well against concussions, since it does not sufficiently protect the brain from the jarring that occurs when the head is struck with great force. Also, most boxers aim for the chin on opponents, and the chin is usually not padded. Thus, a power punch or even a well-placed jab to the chin can inflict serious damage, even when headgear is worn.
[edit] Technique
[edit] Stance
The modern boxing stance differs substantially from the typical boxing stances of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The modern stance has a more upright vertical armed guard, as opposed to more horizontally held, knuckles facing the ground guard as seen among early 20th century boxers such as Jack Johnson).
Upright stance
Semi-crouch
Full crouch
In a fully upright stance, the boxer stands with the legs shoulder-width apart with the rear foot a half-step behind the lead foot. Right-handed or orthodox boxers lead with the left foot and fist. Both feet are pointed slightly inward, and the right heel is off the ground. The lead (left) fist is held vertically about six inches in front of the face at eye level. The rear (right) fist is held beside the chin and the elbow tucked against the ribcage to protect the body. The chin is tucked into the chest to avoid punches to the jaw which commonly cause knock-outs. Some boxers fight from a crouch, leaning forward and keeping their feet closer together.
Left-handed or southpaw fighters use a mirror image of the orthodox stance, which can create problems for orthodox fighters unaccustomed to receiving jabs, hooks, or crosses from the opposite side. The southpaw stance, conversely, is vulnerable to a straight right hand.
North American fighters tend to favor a more balanced stance, facing the opponent almost squarely, while many European fighters stand with their torso turned more to the side. The positioning of the hands may also vary, as some fighters prefer to have both hands raised in front of the face, risking exposure to body shots.
Modern boxers can sometimes be seen tapping their cheeks or foreheads with their fists in order to remind themselves to keep their hands up (which becomes difficult during long bouts). Boxers are taught to push off with their feet in order to move effectively. Forward motion involves lifting the lead leg and pushing with the rear leg. Rearward motion involves lifting the rear leg and pushing with the lead leg. During lateral motion the leg in the direction of the movement moves first while the opposite leg provides the force needed to move the body.
[edit] Punches
There are four basic punches in boxing: the jab, cross, hook and uppercut. If a boxer is right-handed (orthodox), his left hand is the lead hand and his right hand is the rear hand. For a left-handed boxer or southpaw, the hand positions are reversed. For clarity, the following discussion will assume a right-handed boxer.
jab
Cross (Straight right)
Hook
Uppercut
* Jab - A quick, straight punch thrown with the lead hand from the guard position. The jab is accompanied by a small, clockwise rotation of the torso and hips, while the fist rotates 90 degrees, becoming horizontal upon impact. As the punch reaches full extension, the lead shoulder is brought up to guard the chin. The rear hand remains next to the face to guard the jaw. After making contact with the target, the lead hand is retracted quickly to resume a guard position in front of the face. The jab is the most important punch in a boxer's arsenal because it provides a fair amount of its own cover and it leaves the least amount of space for a counterpunch from the opponent. It has the longest reach of any punch and does not require commitment or large weight transfers. Due to its relatively weak power, the jab is often used as a tool to gauge distances, probe an opponent's defenses, harass an opponent, and set up heavier, more powerful punches. A half-step may be added, moving the entire body into the punch, for additional power.
* Cross - A powerful straight punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the rear hand is thrown from the chin, crossing the body and traveling towards the target in a straight line. The rear shoulder is thrust forward and finishes just touching the outside of the chin. At the same time, the lead hand is retracted and tucked against the face to protect the inside of the chin. For additional power, the torso and hips are rotated counter-clockwise as the cross is thrown. Weight is also transferred from the rear foot to the lead foot, resulting in the rear heel turning outwards as it acts as a fulcrum for the transfer of weight. Body rotation and the sudden weight transfer is what gives the cross its power. Like the jab, a half-step forward may be added. After the cross is thrown, the hand is retracted quickly and the guard position resumed. It can be used to counterpunch a jab, aiming for the opponent's head (or a counter to a cross aimed at the body) or to set up a hook. The cross can also follow a jab, creating the classic "one-two" combination. The cross is also called a "straight" or "right."
* Hook - A semi-circular punch thrown with the lead hand to the side of the opponent's head. From the guard position, the elbow is drawn back with a horizontal fist (knuckles pointing forward) and the elbow bent. The rear hand is tucked firmly against the jaw to protect the chin. The torso and hips are rotated clockwise, propelling the fist through a tight, clockwise arc across the front of the body and connecting with the target. At the same time, the lead foot pivots clockwise, turning the left heel outwards. Upon contact, the hook's circular path ends abruptly and the lead hand is pulled quickly back into the guard position. A hook may also target the lower body (the classic Irish/Mexican hook to the liver) and this technique is sometimes called the "rip" to distinguish it from the conventional hook to the head. The hook may also be thrown with the rear hand.
* Uppercut - A vertical, rising punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the torso shifts slightly to the right, the rear hand drops below the level of the opponent's chest and the knees are bent slightly. From this position, the rear hand is thrust upwards in a rising arc towards the opponent's chin or torso. At the same time, the knees push upwards quickly and the torso and hips rotate anti-clockwise and the rear heel turns outward, mimicking the body movement of the cross. The strategic utility of the uppercut depends on its ability to "lift" the opponent's body, setting it off-balance for successive attacks. The right uppercut followed by a left hook is a deadly combination.
These different punching types can be thrown in rapid succession to form combinations or "combos". The most common is the jab and cross combination, nicknamed the "one-two combo". This is usually an effective combination, because the jab blocks the opponent's view of the cross, making it easier to land cleanly and forcefully.[12]
A large, swinging circular punch starting from a cocked-back position with the arm at a longer extension than the hook and all of the fighter's weight behind it is sometimes referred to as a "roundhouse" or "haymaker" punch. Relying on body weight and centrifugal force within a wide arc, the roundhouse can be a powerful blow, but it is often a wild and uncontrolled punch that leaves the fighter delivering it off balance and with an open guard. Wide, looping punches have the further disadvantage of taking more time to deliver, giving the opponent ample warning to react and counter. For this reason, the haymaker or roundhouse is not a conventional punch, and is regarded by trainers as a mark of poor technique or desperation.
Another unconventional punch is the rarely used "bolo punch", in which the opponent swings an arm out several times in a wide arc, usually as a distraction, before delivering with either that or the other arm.
[edit] Defense
There are several basic maneuvers a boxer can use in order to evade or block punches, depicted and discussed below.
Slipping
Bobbing
Blocking (with the arms)
Cover-Up (with the gloves)
Clinching
Footwork
Pulling away
* Slip - Slipping rotates the body slightly so that an incoming punch passes harmlessly next to the head. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer sharply rotates the hips and shoulders. This turns the chin sideways and allows the punch to "slip" past. Muhammed Ali was famous for extremely fast and close slips.
* Sway or Fade - To anticipate a punch and move the upper body or head back so that it misses or has its force appreciably lessened.
* Duck or Break - To drop down with the back straight so that a punch aimed at the head glances or misses entirely.
* Bob and Weave - Bobbing moves the head laterally and beneath an incoming punch. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer bends the legs quickly and simultaneously shifts the body either slightly right or left. Once the punch has been evaded, the boxer "weaves" back to an upright position, emerging on either the outside or inside of the opponent's still-extended arm. To move outside the opponent's extended arm is called "bobbing to the outside". To move inside the opponent's extended arm is called "bobbing to the inside". Joe Frazier and Jack Dempsey were masters of bobbing and weaving.
* Parry/Block - Parrying or blocking uses the boxer's shoulder, hands or arms as defensive tools to protect against incoming attacks. A block generally receives a punch while a parry tends to deflect it. A "palm" or "cuff" is a block which intentionally takes the incoming punch on that portion of the defender's glove.
* The Cover-Up - Covering up is the last opportunity to avoid an incoming strike to an unprotected face or body. Generally speaking, the hands are held high to protect the head and chin and the forearms are tucked against the torso to impede body shots. When protecting the body, the boxer rotates the hips and lets incoming punches "roll" off the guard. To protect the head, the boxer presses both fists against the front of the face with the forearms parallel and facing outwards. This type of guard is weak against attacks from below.
* The Clinch - Clinching is a rough form of grappling and occurs when the distance between both fighters has closed and straight punches cannot be employed. In this situation, the boxer attempts to hold or "tie up" the opponent's hands so he is unable to throw hooks or uppercuts. To perform a clinch, the boxer loops both hands around the outside of the opponent's shoulders, scooping back under the forearms to grasp the opponent's arms tightly against his own body. In this position, the opponent's arms are pinned and cannot be used to attack. Clinching is a temporary match state and is quickly dissipated by the referee.
[edit] Guards
There are several defensive positions (guards or styles) used in boxing. Within each style, there is considerable variation among fighters, as some fighters may have their guard higher for more head protection while others have their guard lower to provide better protection against body punches. Many fighters vary their defensive style throughout a bout in order to adapt to the situation of the moment, choosing the position best suited to protect them.
Boxers who use an upright stance protect their chin with the rear hand in either the low or mixed guard styles depicted below. Crouch fighters tend to use the "peek-a-boo" style, discussed below.
Low guard
Mixed guard
Peek-a-boo
* Peek-a-boo - Sometimes known as the "earmuffs," the hands are placed next to each other in front of the face (like mentioned before fighters tend to vary the exact positioning in which they use it) and elbows are brought in tight to the body(this position can be achieved by bringing the elbows as close together while not straining yourself to do so). This defensive style is what a boxer is taught to do when he begins to box, after they gain experience he can decide to change or vary their guard. This style is middle-of-the-road style in terms of counterpunching and damage reduction. A boxer can counter punch from this stance, but it is difficult. However, there have been boxers who can do this very well. This defense covers up a fighter well, but there are holes. Hooks do damage by going around the hands and by hitting just behind the elbows. Winky Wright uses this style very well from a damage reduction stand point.
* Cross-armed - The forearms are placed on top of each other horizontally in front of the face with the glove of one arm being on the top of the elbow of the other arm. This style is greatly varied when the back hand (right for an orthodox fighter and left for a southpaw) rises vertically. This style is the most effective for reducing head damage. The only head punch that a fighter is susceptible to is a jab to the top of the head. The body is open, but most fighters who use this style bend and lean to protect the body, but while upright and unaltered the body is there to be hit. This position is very difficult to counterpunch from, but virtually eliminates all head damage.
* Philly Shell or Crab - The lead arm (left for an orthodox fighter and right for a southpaw) is placed across the torso usually somewhere in between the belly button and chest and the lead hand rests on the opposite side of the fighter's torso. The back hand is placed on the side of the face (right side for orthodox fighters and left side for southpaws). The lead shoulder is brought in tight against the side of the face (left side for orthodox fighters and right side for southpaws). This style is used by fighters who like to counterpunch. To execute this guard a fighter must be very athletic and experienced. This style is so effective for counterpunching because it allows fighters to slip punches by rotating and dipping their upper body and causing blows to glance off the fighter. After the punch glances off, the fighter's back hand is in perfect position to hit his out-of-positioned opponent. The shoulder lean is used in this stance. To execute the shoulder lean a fighter rotates and ducks (to the right for orthodox fighters and to the left for southpaws) when his opponent's punch is coming towards him and then rotates back towards his opponent while his opponent is bringing his hand back. The fighter will throw a punch with his back hand as he is rotating towards his undefended opponent. Floyd Mayweather Jr executes the shoulder lean perfectly according to technique. The weakness to this style is that when a fighter is stationary and not rotating he is open to be hit, so a fighter must be athletic and well conditioned to effectively execute this style. To beat this style fighters like to jab their opponent's shoulder causing the shoulder and arm to be in pain and to demobilize that arm.
[edit] Ring generalship
Boxers generally attempt to land short, fast combinations and then quickly shift position to avoid a possible response by their opponent. Strategically, the ring's centre is generally the desired position since a boxer is able to conserve movement by forcing the opponent to circle around them. When in the centre, the boxer is also less likely to be knocked backwards against the ropes surrounding the ring and cornered. Depending on the boxer's style, the centre is the desired location as cornering opponents is always a good strategy. Most fighters, though, will not move around the boxer in the center because doing so makes them vulnerable to shots thrown at good angles. Movement is the most important tool in the ring and allows the fighter to avoid punches that were not telegraphed. If a boxer is standing still, his opponent has a better chance of hitting him. A fighter anticipating a shot while stationary is less likely to be able to evade the shot than a fighter already in motion.
[edit] Less common strategies
The "rope-a-dope" strategy
* Used by Muhammad Ali in his 1974 "Rumble in the Jungle" bout against George Foreman, the rope-a-dope method involves laying back on the ropes, covering up defensively as much as possible and allowing the opponent to land punches. Weathering the blows, the boxer lures the opponent into expending energy whilst conserving his/her own. If successful, the attacking opponent will eventually tire, creating defensive flaws which the boxer can exploit. In modern boxing, the rope-a-dope is generally discouraged since most opponents are not fooled by it and few boxers possess the physical toughness to withstand a prolonged, unanswered assault.
Bolo punch
* Occasionally seen in Olympic boxing, the bolo is an arm punch which owes its power to the shortening of a circular arc rather than to transference of body weight; it tends to have more of an effect due to the surprise of the odd angle it lands at rather than the actual power of the punch. This is more of a gimmick than a technical maneuver; this punch is not taught, being on the same plane in boxing technicality as is the Ali shuffle. Nevertheless, a few professional boxers have used the bolo-punch to great effect, including former welterweight champions Sugar Ray Leonard and Kid Gavilan.
Bolo-punch
[edit] Medical concerns
It should be noted that knocking a person unconscious or even causing concussion may cause some permanent brain damage.[13] Furthermore, there is no clear division between the force required to knock out a human and an amount of force which will kill them.
More than 350 amateur and professional boxers have been killed in the ring since 1945;[citation needed] for example, Duk Koo Kim who on November 13, 1982 held a fight with Ray "Boom Boom" Mancini which led to Duk's death five days later.
In 1983, The Journal of the American Medical Association called for a ban on boxing. The editor, Dr. George Lundberg, called boxing an "obscenity" that "should not be sanctioned by any civilized society." Since then, the American Neurological Association, American Academy of Neurology and British, Canadian and Australian Medical Associations have also wanted to abolish the sport.[citation needed]
Many support the ban because it seems that causing injury to another athlete is the goal of the sport. Dr. Bill O'Neill, boxing spokesman for the British Medical Association, has supported the BMA's proposed ban on boxing: "It is the only sport where the intention is to inflict serious injury on your opponent, and we feel that we must have a total ban on boxing."[14] In 2007, one study of amateur boxers showed that protective headgear did not prevent brain damage.[15], and another found that amateur boxers faced a high risk of brain damage[16].
In 1997, the American Association of Professional Ringside Physicians (the "AAPRP) was established to create medical protocols through research and education to prevent injuries in boxing.
Professional boxing is forbidden in Norway, Iceland, Sweden, Cuba, Iran and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea.[citation needed]
[edit] Fatalities versus brain injury
Anti-boxing activist Manuel Velazquez compiled extensive data on deaths in boxing.[17]
In 1984, R.J. McCunney and P.K. Russo published a study entitled Brain Injuries in Boxing. The study argued that boxing is relatively safe compared to other sports by citing the following figures on U.S. sports fatalities:
Fatality rates per 100,000 participants
1. Horse racing: 128
2. Sky diving: 123
3. Hang gliding: 56
4. Mountaineering: 51
5. Scuba Diving: 11
6. Motorcycle racing: 7
7. College Football: 3
8. Boxing: 1.3
Dr. Lundberg replied: "It's not the deaths but the chronic brain damage that is so frequent." The AMA reports brain deterioration in three out of four boxers who have twenty or more professional fights.
To date, there has been little research regarding the long-term effects of amateur boxing.
[edit] Boxing Hall of Fame
The sport of boxing has two internationally recognized boxing hall of fames; the International Boxing Hall of Fame (IBHOF) and the World Boxing Hall of Fame (WBHF), with the IBHOF being the more widely recognized boxing hall of fame.
The WBHF was founded by Everett L. Sanders in 1980. Since its inception the WBHOF has never had a permanent location or museum, which has allowed the more recent IBHOF to garner more publicity and prestige.
Boxing's International Hall of Fame was inspired by a tribute an American town held for two local heroes in 1982. The town, Canastota, New York, (which is about 15 miles east of Syracuse, via the New York State Thruway), honored former world welterweight/middleweight champion Carmen Basilio and his nephew, former world welterweight champion Billy Backus. The people of Canastota raised money for the tribute which inspired the idea of creating an official, annual hall of fame for notable boxers.
The International Boxing Hall of Fame opened in Canastota in 1989. The first inductees in 1990 included Jack Johnson, Benny Leonard, Jack Dempsey, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson, Archie Moore, Muhammad Ali, and Alex Constantinidis. Other world-class figures include Roberto "Manos de Piedra" Duran, Ismael Laguna, Eusebio Pedroza, Carlos Monzon, Mike "Sleaze the Stink" Sinclair, Tom 'Whiters' Whitesnake, Beau "Gooch" Penning, Josh "Manpig" Connell, Azumah Nelson, Tony Tubbs, Rocky Marciano, Pipino Cuevas and Ken Buchanan. The Hall of Fame's induction ceremony is held every June as part of a four-day event.
The fans who come to Canastota for the Induction Weekend are treated to a number of events, including scheduled autograph sessions, boxing exhibitions, a parade featuring past and present inductees, and the induction ceremony itself.
[edit] Governing and sanctioning bodies
Champions since 1920 of heavyweight boxing of 5 most important Associations
Champions since 1920 of heavyweight boxing of 5 most important Associations
Governing Body Website
British Boxing Board of Control (BBBofC) http://www.bbbofc.com/
Nevada State Athletic Commission http://boxing.nv.gov/
American Association of Professional Ringside Physicians (AAPRP) http://www.aaprp.org/
Sanctioning Body Website
World Boxing Association (W.B.A.) http://www.wbaonline.com/
World Boxing Council (W.B.C.) http://www.wbcboxing.com/
International Boxing Federation (I.B.F.) http://www.ibf-usba-boxing.com/
World Boxing Organization (W.B.O.) http://www.wbo-int.com/
International Boxing Organization (I.B.O.) http://www.iboboxing.com/
North American Boxing Council (N.A.B.C.) http://www.nabc.net/
[edit] See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Boxing
* Boxing at the Summer Olympics
* List of male boxers
* List of female boxers
* List of Triple Champions of Boxing
* Miscellaneous of Boxing
[edit] References
Cited references
1. ^ BBC. The origins of Boxing, BBC History [1]
2. ^ Classic of Rites. Chapter 6, Yuèlìng. Line 108.
3. ^ a b Bruce A. Haines (1995). Karate's History and Traditions (p. 23-25). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-1947-5.
4. ^ Cezar Borkowski (1998). Complete Idiot's Guide to Martial Arts.
5. ^ James B. Roberts and Alexander G. Skutt (1999). James Figg, IBOHF [2]
6. ^ John Rennie (2006) East London Prize Ring Rules 1743[3]
7. ^ Clay Moyle and Arly Allen (2006), 1838 Prize Rules[4]
8. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica (2006). Queensbury Rules, Britannica[5]
9. ^ Tracy Callis (2006). James Corbett, Cyberboxingzone.com [6]
10. ^ Andrew Eisele (2005). Olympic Boxing Rules, About.com [7]
11. ^ Bert Randolph Sugar (2001). "Boxing," World Book Online Americas Edition[8]
12. ^ Leo Cardenas (2006). Video Instruction of How to Throw a Jab Cross Combo expertvillage.com[9]
13. ^ BBC. Boxing Brain Damage, BBC News[10]
14. ^ BBC, News on Boxing Ban, BBC Online[11]
15. ^ (08 May 2007) "Amateur boxers suffer brain damage too". New Scientist (2602): 4.
16. ^ "Does Amateur Boxing Cause Brain Damage?", American Academy of Neurology, May 2, 2007.
17. ^ Joseph R. Svinth (2006). Deaths in Boxing, Journal of Combative Sport[12]
General references
* Accidents Take Lives of Young Alumni (July/August 2005). Illinois Alumni, 18(1), 47.
* Beating the heck outta their instruments
* Death Under the Spotlight: The Manuel Velazquez Boxing Fatality Collection
* Fleischer, Nat, Sam Andre, Nigel Collins, Dan Rafael (2002). An Illustrated History of Boxing. Citadel Press. ISBN 0-8065-2201-1
* Fox, James A. (2001). Boxing. Stewart, Tabori and Chang. ISBN 1-58479-133-0
* Godfrey, John "Boxing" from Treatise Upon the Useful Science of Defense, 1747
* Gunn M, Ormerod D. The legality of boxing. Legal Studies. 1995;15:181.
* Halbert, Christy (2003). The Ultimate Boxer: Understanding the Sport and Skills of Boxing. Impact Seminars, Inc. ISBN 0-9630968-5-0
* Hatmaker, Mark (2004). Boxing Mastery : Advanced Technique, Tactics, and Strategies from the Sweet Science. Tracks Publishing. ISBN 1-884654-21-5
* McIlvanney, Hugh (2001). The Hardest Game : McIlvanney on Boxing. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-658-02154-0
* Myler, Patrick (1997). A Century of Boxing Greats: Inside the Ring with the Hundred Best Boxers. Robson Books (UK) / Parkwest Publications (US). ISBN 1-86105-258-8.
* Price, Edmund The Science of Self Defense: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling, 1867
* Robert Anasi (2003). The Gloves: A Boxing Chronicle. North Point Press. ISBN 0-86547-652-7
* Silverman, Jeff (2004). he Greatest Boxing Stories Ever Told : Thirty-Six Incredible Tales from the Ring. The Lyons Press. ISBN 1-59228-479-5
* Scully, John Learn to Box with the Iceman
* U.S. Amateur Boxing Inc. (1994). Coaching Olympic Style Boxing. Cooper Pub Group. 1-884-12525-5
* A Pictoral History Of Boxing, Sam Andre and Nat Fleischer, Hamlyn, 1988, ISBN 0-600-50288-0
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